-
因果推断之路径既黑暗又危险
-
但是计量经济学是很厉害的武器
-
当自然界给你带来偶然的随机分配时
-
使用气势汹汹与灵活多變的
工具变量进行攻击
-
[]
-
随机试验是完成
“其他条件不变”的比较
-
的最可靠途径
-
但我们经常无法使用
这个功能强大的工具
-
但是有时候,随机是偶然发生的
-
这时候我们转向工具变量
-
—简称IV
-
工具变量
-
今天的课堂是IV两节课的第一节
-
我们的第一节IV课
从学校的故事开始
-
[]
-
特许学校是一些公立学校
-
不受日常学区监督
与教师工会合同约束
-
特许学校能否提高成绩
-
是美国教育改革史上
-
最重要的问题之一
-
最受欢迎的特许学校的申请人数
远多于学位
-
因此抽奖运决定了
谁家孩子可获录取
-
在学生争夺机会时需要面对很多风险
-
正如获奖纪录片“等待超人”中
-
所描述的那样
-
等待结果时会产生很多种情绪
-
别哭,你会让妈妈哭的
好吗?
-
特许学校真的能提供更好的教育吗?
-
评论家肯定会说"不是的"
-
他们会争辩说特许学校
能夠招募更好
-
更聪明或更主动的学生
因此以后结果的差异
-
反映了选择性偏差
-
等一下,这个似乎很容易
-
在抽奖活动中
我们会随机选择优胜者
-
因此只比较赢家和输家
很明显的
-
在正确的轨道上,卡马尔
-
但是特许学校的抽签安排
-
不会强迫孩子们进入
或离开特定的学校
-
他们随机分配了特许学校的学位
-
有些孩子很幸运
-
有些孩子不是
-
如果我们只是想知道特许学校
-
所带来的影响
-
我们可以将其视为随机试验
-
但是,我们只对特许学校
就学的影响
-
感兴趣
-
而对录取不感兴趣
-
并非所有获录取的学生
都会接受学位
-
IV将被录取为特许学校学生的影响
-
转变为实际就读特许学校的影响
-
- 太酷了
- 哦,太好了
-
让我们看一个例子
-
这是一所执行知识就是力量专案
的特许学校,或简称为KIPP
-
这所KIPP特许学校位于林恩
-
一座位于麻省海边的
褪色工业城镇
-
这所学校的申请者多于学位
-
因此他们要抽签来挑选学生
-
从2005年到2008年
共有371名四年级以及五年级生
-
参加了KIPP林恩的抽签
-
当中253名学生KIPP获录取
-
118名学生没有录取
-
一年后,获录取者的数学分数
-
比未获录取者更高
-
我们并不是试图弄清楚
-
获录取后是否会提高
你的数学水平
-
我们想知道参加KIPP
是否会使你的数学成绩改进
-
在253位获录取者中
实际上只有199位到KIPP上学
-
其他学生选择了传统的公立学校
-
同样,在118名未被录取的学生中
事实上有一些最终参加了KIPP
-
他们后来也获录取
-
那么,实际上参加KIPP
-
对考试成绩有何影响呢?
-
为什么我们不能只衡量
他们的数学成绩?
-
这是很好的问题
-
你将他们与谁进行比较呢?
-
那些没有参加的学生
-
上学率是随机的吗?
-
- 不是啊
- 选择性偏差
-
- 对啊
- 什么?
-
KIPP的录取是随机的,因此我们
对“其他条件不变”的假设充满信心
-
但上学率不是随机的
-
选择接受录取通知
-
可能是与数学成绩有关的特征
-
例如,有奉献精神的父母
-
更有可能接受录取
-
无论上那间学校
-
他们的孩子的数学成绩
也有可能更好
-
对啊
-
IV将录取的影响
-
转化为KIPP上学率的影响
-
并就一些获录取者到其他学校上学
-
而一些未被录取者还是设法
参加了KIPP 而进行调整
-
本质上,IV需要进行不完全的随机化
-
并进行适当的调整
-
怎么样? IV描述了一种连锁反应
-
为什么学校的录取会影响成绩?
-
可能是因为这影响了
特许学校的上学率
-
而特许学校的上学率
提高了数学成绩
-
连锁反应的第一个环节
称之为“第一阶段”
-
是抽签对特许学校上学率的影响
-
第二阶段是在特许学校学
-
以及结果变量之间的关联
-
在这情况下,数学分数
-
工具变量或简称为“工具”
-
是启动链式反应的变量
-
工具变量对结果的影响
-
称为简化式
-
这个链式反应可以用数学表示
-
我们乘以第一阶段
-
即录取者对上学率的影响
-
到第二阶段
-
上学率对分数的影响
-
我们得到简化式
-
获录取对分数的影响
-
简化式和第一阶段是可观察的
并且易于计算
-
但是,上学率对成绩的影响
-
并未能直接观察到
-
这是我们试图确定的因果关系
-
考虑到我们将在稍后进行讨论的
一些重要假设
-
我们可以通过将简化式
除以第一阶段
-
来找出KIPP上学率的影响
-
通过示例,这点将会更加清楚
-
让我们做吧
-
有关衡量的简短笔记
-
我们使用标准差来衡量成就
-
通常用希腊字母sigma (σ) 表示
-
一个σ是从大多数成就分配的
最低15%
-
到中间位置的巨大变化
-
甚至¼或½ σ 的差异也很大
-
现在我们准备将一些数字
-
插入到前面介绍的方程式中
-
首先,获录取对数学成绩
-
有何影响呢?
-
KIPP申请人的数学成绩是
-
申请KIPP之前一年中
-
低于州平均值的标准差的三分之一
-
但是一年后,获录取者得分
达到了州平均水平
-
而未被录取者
-
仍然落后于平均分数-0.36σ
-
获录取者对分数的影响
是获录取者的分数
-
与未被录取者的分数之间的差异
-
获录取者的平均数学成绩
-
减去未被录取者的平均数学成绩
-
你的答案是0.36σ
-
Next up: what's the effect
of winning the lottery on attendance?
-
In other words,
if you win the lottery,
-
how much more likely
are you to attend KIPP
-
than if you lose?
-
First, what percentage
of lottery winners attend KIPP?
-
Divide the number of winners
who attended KIPP
-
by the total number
of lottery winners -- that's 78%.
-
To find the percentage
of lottery losers who attended KIPP,
-
we divide the number of losers
who attended KIPP
-
by the total number
of lottery losers -- that's 4%.
-
Subtract 4 from 78, and we find
that winning the lottery
-
makes you 74%
more likely to attend KIPP.
-
Now we can find
what we're really after --
-
the effect of attendance on scores,
by dividing 0.36 by 0.74.
-
Attending KIPP raises math scores
-
by 0.48 standard deviations
on average.
-
That's an awesome achievement gain,
-
equal to moving
from about the bottom third
-
to the middle
of the achievement distribution.
-
- [Student] Whoa, half a sig.
-
- [Instructor] These estimates
are for kids opting in
-
to the KIPP lottery,
-
whose enrollment status
is changed by winning.
-
That's not necessarily
a random sample
-
of all children in Lynn.
-
So we can't assume
we'd see the same effect
-
for other types of students.
- [Student] Huh.
-
- But this effect
on keen for KIPP kids
-
is likely to be a good indicator
of the consequences
-
of adding additional charter seats.
-
- [Student] Cool.
- [Student] Got it.
-
- IV eliminates selection bias,
but like all of our tools,
-
the solution builds on a set
of assumptions
-
not to be taken for granted.
-
First, there must be
a substantial first stage --
-
that is the instrumental variable,
winning or losing the lottery,
-
must really change the variable
whose effect we're interested in --
-
here, KIPP attendance.
-
In this case, the first stage
is not really in doubt.
-
Winning the lottery makes
KIPP attendance much more likely.
-
Not all IV stories are like that.
-
Second, the instrument
must be as good
-
as randomly assigned,
-
meaning lottery winners and losers
have similar characteristics.
-
This is the independence assumption.
-
Of course, KIPP lottery wins
really are randomly assigned.
-
Still, we should check for balance
and confirm that winners and losers
-
have similar family backgrounds,
-
similar aptitudes and so on.
-
In essence, we're checking
to ensure KIPP lotteries are fair
-
with no group of applicants
suspiciously likely to win.
-
Finally, we require
the instrument change outcomes
-
solely through
the variable of interest --
-
in this case, attending KIPP.
-
This assumption is called
the exclusion restriction.
-
- IV only works if you can satisfy
these three assumptions.
-
- I don't understand
the exclusion restriction.
-
How could winning the lottery
affect math scores
-
other than by attending KIPP?
-
- [Student] Yeah.
- [Instructor] Great question.
-
Suppose lottery winners
are just thrilled to win,
-
and this happiness motivates them
to study more and learn more math,
-
regardless of where
they go to school.
-
This would violate
the exclusion restriction
-
because the motivational effect
of winning is a second channel
-
whereby lotteries
might affect test scores.
-
While it's hard
to rule this out entirely,
-
there's no evidence
of any alternative channels
-
in the KIPP study.
-
- IV solves the problem
of selection bias
-
in scenarios like the KIPP lottery
where treatment offers are random
-
but some of those offered opt out.
-
This sort of intentional
yet incomplete random assignment
-
is surprisingly common.
-
Even randomized clinical trials
have this feature.
-
IV solves the problem
of non-random take-up
-
in lotteries or clinical research.
-
But lotteries are not the only source
of compelling instruments.
-
Many causal questions
can be addressed
-
by naturally occurring
-
as good as randomly
assigned variation.
-
Here's a causal question for you:
-
Do women who have children
early in their careers
-
suffer a substantial earnings penalty
-
as a result?
-
After all, women earn less than men.
-
We could, of course, simply compare
the earnings of women
-
with more and fewer children.
-
But such comparisons are fraught
with selection bias.
-
If only we could
randomly assign babies
-
to different households.
-
Yeah, right,
sounds pretty fanciful.
-
Our next IV story -- fantastic
and not fanciful --
-
illustrates an amazing,
naturally occurring instrument
-
for family size.
-
♪ [] ♪
-
- [Instructor] You're on your way
to mastering econometrics.
-
Make sure this video sticks
-
by taking a few
quick practice questions.
-
Or, if you're ready,
click for the next video.
-
You can also check out
MRU's website for more courses,
-
teacher resources, and more.
-
♪ [] ♪