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Hello and welcome everyone.
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My name is Olga, I'm speaking now from Berlin.
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I'm currently completing my Masters degree in Comparative Indo-European Linguistics.
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at Humboldt University of Berlin.
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During my studies I learned several ancient languages,
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for example Sanskrit, Old Persian, Hittite, Hieroglyphics, Luwian, Latin,
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and for the past 3 years, my hobby was Lithuanian.
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I have been tutoring some lessons in Lithuanian and Sanskrit, and introductory courses in historical linguistics.
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I'm also currently working on a research project aimed at editting all Old Lithuanian texts up to 1000 words.
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But today I will be speaking of not Old Lithuanian, but the modern Lithuanian language.
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And I will try to uncover the truth behind its claimed antiquity.
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And I will demonstrate why this language is particularly important for Indo-European linguistics.
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The idea of this presentation hit me one day when I was searching the web
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for some exciting material for my students about ancient languages,
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so - my astonishment - the first recommended source about ancient languages
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was not only misleading, but it was quite nonsensical.
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It suggested that Lithuanian was 5000 years old, placed as 7th oldest world language.
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First of all, I would like to make clear
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this statement doesn't make any sense.
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Languages are evolving all the time,
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from one language into another.
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Since we don't know anything about the oldest language in the world,
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- the written sources developed much later than the first languages emerged -
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and the beginnings of the history of languages are not documented.
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It doesn't make any sense to talk about any single language as the oldest.
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Rather, we should talk about 'conservative features' of particular languages.
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Historical linguists who study the evolution of languages
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were able to prove that from this list,
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Sanskrit, Greek, Lithuanian and Farsi
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are in fact all descendants of the same language,
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which we call the Proto-Indo-European,
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and they are therefore of the same age.
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The Proto-Indo-European,
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according to the most widespread hypothesis,
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was spoken somewhere here,
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in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe
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approximately 3000/4000 years Before Christ.
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Somewhere north of the Caucasian Mountains,
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where today there's the border between eastern Ukraine and southwest Russia.
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Proto-Baltic peoples/tribes migrated to the north,
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(probably in unity with the Slavic tribes,
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which we can infer due to multiple similarities between the Baltic and Slavic languages,
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not only in the words, but in the language structure).
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When they settled down, Proto-Baltic tribes had contacts with Finns in the north,
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(and in fact, the Finns during that period were still nomadic peoples).
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The Finns learned the settled way of life from the Balts.
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This can be shown from [linguistic paleontology]; multiple borrowings in Finnic languages are related to [Baltic] agricultural terms and animal husbandry.
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The Balts also had other contacts,
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such as Ilyrians, Drakkians(?), Scythians - but all those languages have died out.
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From that Indo-European homeland,
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Indo-European languages have spread to every single (inhabited) continent of our planet.
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In fact, the Indo-European language family, is the most widespread in the world.
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With 3.2 billion native speakers,
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spread out almost everywhere around the globe.
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On this map you can see,
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dark blue countries have an Indo-European language spoken natively by the majority of the population;
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light blue countries have an Indo-European language as an official language, among others.
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The Indo-European language family is not only the most widespread,
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it is also the best researched language family in the world.
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The research of the Indo-European language family started approx. 200 years ago.
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The first publication came out in 1816 in Berlin.
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Since then, a lot of discoveries have been made.
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And a lot of artefacts have been found by archaeologists,
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who can study the relationship between the languages and the language's archaeological origins.
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It is common to show linguistic relationships in the form of a tree.
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This practice originates in Darwin's theory of evolution.
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If you look at this particular tree
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it doesnt show all IE languages,
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but it tries to show the amount of speakers of several IE languages,
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including our Lithuanian!
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Only around 3 millions speakers worldwide; just a tiny branch on the tree.
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On this other, more schematic representation of the language tree,
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Here's our Balto-Slavic branch of languages.
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As I told you, Baltic and Slavic peoples left the IE homeland together,
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so their languages also evolved together, until a certain point in time,
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and then they split into 2 separate groups,
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and then the Baltic languages, in turn, split into 2 different groups as well,
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eastern and western groups.
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Western Baltic is only represented by the now extinct Old Prussian language.
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Its last speaker died in the early 18th century.
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Both Eastern Baltic languages (Lithuanian and Latvian) are still spoken today.
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The West and the East Balts,
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began to diverge in their speech around 1000 BC.
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Their languages became distinct no later than 300 BC.
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Approx. 800 years later, (c.500 AD),
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the language of the northern part of the East Slavic tribes began to change rapidly.
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The final syllables became shortened.
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The stress patterns changed.
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The whole linguistic system became restructured.
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Those East Balts which settled in a different territory to the north;
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they gave rise to the language which we call Latvian.
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The southern part of the East Balts remained,
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and their language stayed very archaic.
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This is the language we now call Lithuanian.
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Since we've now established the lineage of Lithuanian,
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I would like to now talk about possible reasons why people claim that Lithuanian is one of the oldest languages in the world.
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Why would anyone call a language old?
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Due to its textual transmission?
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If we examine Lithuanian, this is certainly not the case.
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The oldest written record of an Indo-European language
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is in the written Hittite language,
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an ancient language of Anatolia.
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The oldest written Hittite document, the so-called Anitta text, was transmitted around 2000 BC.
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This is very different to Lithuanian!
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Writing was introduced in Lithuania during the Middle Ages, along with Christianity.
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During that time, Lithuanian readers maintained their contacts with western nations. And the Pope in Rome, and Latin.
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Latin was the language of the scholarly elite.
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Unsurprisingly, the first publications concerning Lithuanian history and culture were in the Latin language.
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One of the most notable such works is
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De moribus tartarorum, lituanorum et moscorum
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It is a treaty published by a person under pseudonym
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Michalonis Lithuani.
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This treatise was written as late as the mid 16th century, and not published until 1615.
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It contains some historical information,
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on Lithuanians and other peoples, their neighbours.
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It compares Lithuanian pagan traditions to ancient Roman traditions.
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It also lists 74 Lithuanian words, which are compared with similar sounding Latin words.
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Numerous Latin books were written by Lithuanian authors during that time.
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They published in Krakow, Riga and Vilnius.
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In fact Vilnius's first printing press started in in 1522.
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In the 16th century, there were 158 Latin books published in Vilnius.
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But the first book to be actually written in the Lithuanian language, rather than Latin,
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was the Catechism by Martynas Mažvydas
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which printed in 1547 in Königsberg (today's Kalingrad).
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This book marks the beginning of Lithuanian literature, and is therefore considered to be the most important artefact of Lithuanian history.
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It consists of a primer, a catechism, a book of songs with musical notes, a prayer book, a translation of Holy Writ, and original prefaces and dedications.
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The book was aimed at spreading the Protestant religion,
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and fighting the remains of pagan beliefs.
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It was very important to Martynas Mažvydas the author to make it accessible
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to a broader audience, so he also called it
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'The simple words of catechism' and the language used is quite simple.
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Here is the first page of the catechism's text.
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Excuse me for the suboptimal quality.
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There's one thing I'd like to show you.
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The first/title page of the catechism doesn't mention the authorship.
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But the author perpetuated his own name by composing an acrostic poem.
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When reading the initial letters of lines 3–19 of the preface, it spells out MARTJNVS MASVJDJVS, or the name Martynas Mažvydas in Latin.
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Another Lithuanian book I would like to share with you is the 'Postil of Littau'.
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As the title suggests, it was written in German.
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Which was quite common practice,
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lots of Germans had contacts with Lithuanians and wrote books about them.
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This is the first ethnographic account of Lithuanians.
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Though it was written in 1690, it is very accessible to a modern reader.
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It is extremely entertaining.
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Although not everything is politically correct,
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and not all 'facts' are really true,
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but the interesting thing is
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that out of 15 chapters, dealing with religion, culture, and the customs of the Lithuanian people,
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it features one chapter on the Lithuanian language.
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There are some riddles and proverbs and fun facts about the Old Lithuanian language,
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and a few theories about genetic relationships.
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So now, obviously Lithuanian's claimed antiquity is not due to its attestation.
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Let's turn to the writing system.
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Perhaps most of you know that the first writing system that we know of
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was developed by the Sumerian people
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in Mesopotamia about 3000 BC -
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and obviously not by Lithuanians,
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Lithuanians only adopted writing during the Christian period,
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using Latin at first,
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so they also adapted the Latin alphabet to their needs.
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The Lithuanian alphabet has changed slightly over time.
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It is currently comprised of 32 letters,
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with some additional diacritical marks to mark vowel length and the typical Baltic/Slavic palatalized sounds (Č, Š, and so on).
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It is largely a phonetic writing system, so you can learn to read Lithuanian almost instantly.
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There are some digraphs used.
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One curious fact about the Lithuanian alphabet is that the letters F and H, as well as the digraph CH, denote sounds only appearing in loanwords.
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They were not actually used way back in time.
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So for example France is called Prancūzija in Lithuanian.
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Another idea about antiquity comes from Lithuanian lexemes,
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because the Lithuanian language retained very many ancient lexemes.
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In the area marked here, there are rivers with names which can be etymologized to Lithuanian or Baltic words.
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This was the area of impenetrable forests populated by the Balts approximately 2000 BC to 1000 BC.
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They were basically undisturbed by anyone, for example the major migrations didn't come into this area.
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That's why they could retain quite a bit of archaic vocabulary.
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Today the territory where Baltic languages are spoken is much, much smaller.
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Native speakers will tell you "our language is particularly old and ancient because there are many words in Sanskrit that are just the same in Lithuanian".
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It is true. For example this list shows some of the lexemes between those 2 languages.
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But we should not make theories based on languages' genetic relationships based only on lexemes.
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Just imagine this scenario:
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Due to computers and the internet being so often referred to in the English language, all around the world,
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a future linguist might assume that English is the root of all other languages.
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The real true way to establish a genetic relationship between several languages is a systematic comparison of their grammatical features.
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So, quoting Wikipedia's page on Lithuanian grammar; "Lithuanian grammar retains many archaic features from Proto-Indo-European that have been lost in other Indo-European languages and is consequently very complex".
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This claim is true. All aspects of Lithuanian language, (including phonetics, grammatical structure, lexicon)
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are still comparatively archaic compared to other modern Indo-European languages.
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I will now present some facts about those some of those archaic features.
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One of the less complex features of Lithuanian is the future tense.
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In order to build future tense in Lithuanian you have to remove the T element of the infinite of the word of the verb.
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For example, "dirbti" (to work) you would remove the T element (which marks the infinitive),
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and you add the suffix S, and attach personal endings to that suffix.
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This suffix S (and its sound) is very old, in fact its also used in Sanskrit to build future tense.
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Quite unique!
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Another important archaic feature of Lithuanian is the nominal declension.
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So apart from some loan words such as "taboo" or "taxi",
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all Lithuanian words including proper names are inflected.
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There are 7 inherited cases in in total. The nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative.
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So depending on the last vowel or last sound of the stem of the noun stem,
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nouns are divided into 5 declension types.
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This is a really ancient feature of the Proto-Indo-European.
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Maybe some of you who learned a Classical language like Latin or Sanskrit know this feature;
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that you you don't learn one declension but you systematically learn one after another.
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This is the case in Lithuanian as well.
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Look at this table; compare this to the English language.
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In English, if you want to to to express something like this, all you need to know is the word itself and how to build a plural.
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Book --> Books... sometimes more complicated... Mouse --> Mice.
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In Lithuanian, you need to first identify the stem class which the word belongs to,
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and then you need to think about its grammatical gender,
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then you need to think about the number,
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and afterwards you think about the function in the sentence,
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and only afterwards you need to pick the right ending from this table.
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You attach it to the word and then you're done.
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You could say that English is an extreme example of an analytical language,
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but some other languages like Russian also have a complex system of nominal declension,
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but in the nominal declension of Lithuanian, there are some special archaic features;
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the locative case for example is constructed without a preposition,
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so in order to say "in Berlin" in Lithuanian,
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you just say "Berlynas" without any preposition like you would need to use in Russian or English.
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This air element is also very archaic,
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as well as the S element in the locative plural of Lithuanian.
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Another case is the vocative case.
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This is the list of all the endings you would need to know for the vocative case,
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so if you address a person um by name or profession or family status or something similar,
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you would need to learn all of those endings and if you just say "Vytautas" (a very popular Lithuanian name),
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it's just the nominative case and if you would want to talk to or ask Vytautas something,
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you would need to say "Vytautai".
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Why did Lithuanian retain all those endings?
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Why is the nominal declension system so intact compared to others Indo-European languages?
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This is due to the accentuation.
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Accentuation in other Indo-European languages has changed massively.
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The example of Germanic languages is perhaps best.
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So before the Germanic languages split into separate languages and developed into what we know as know as modern English, Swedish, Danish, German and so on..
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earlier Germanic langauges fixed stress on the initial syllable at the very beginning of the word.
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When languages do that, the tendency is for the last syllable to be pronounced less effectively.
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Over the centuries, those syllables were lost.
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That's how Germanic languages lost their declension endings.
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Lithuanian kept the accentuation.
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Although it didn't keep the original Proto-Indo-European accentuation, it kept the pitch accent and mobile stress.
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This is unfortunately not marked in the everyday texts,
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and is one of the hardest features to learn.
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Some learner textbooks unfortunately don't mark the stressed syllable.
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If I had chosen to include the tables of all the the stress patterns, then my slides would be doubled and there would be no end to my presentation!
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So let's leave this topic for now, by saying that the accentuation of Lithuanian is a complicated matter.
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It's been studied for decades, but it's still a very complicated topic.
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The last point is the Lithuanian syntax.
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It is normally an SVO language, but it does have a comparatively free order.
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You can change sentences' word order,
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but keep in mind that with the changed order you would stress different information and different parts of the sentences.
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So to finish off, I would like to also mention some innovations of Lithuanian.
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So Lithuanian has seen multiple phonological changes.
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For instance all the palatalizations which are common both to Baltic and Slavic languages,
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it lost ablative case and adopted additional locative cases.
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It developed definite adjectives, it regularized the gradation of adjectives and adverbs,
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especially the verbal system which has been drastically reduced.
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Some tenses such as aorist and perfect tense were lost.
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The optitive mood was lost.
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The middle voice was also lost, and instead Lithuanian uses reflexive verbs for that,
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It developed a very complex system of participles.
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This list is not exhaustive! If it were, I'd need to give another full presentation!
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But what i would like you to take away from this presentation,
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is the the fact that Lithuanian is a very archaic language, with multiple conservative features,
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and that is why it is very important for Indo-European linguists.
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Thank you very much for your attention, and now it's question time.
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This is a very good question, this is a question that has been disputed since since the very beginnings of Indo-European studies.
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To me, it is quite clear that that Baltic and Slavic developed together, and later split from each other,
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and then even later, the East and West Baltic languages split in their turn.
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Most of the similarities between them are due to close contact since there was no consequent migration during those times.
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I hope that answers your question.
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Yes and no.
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I don't think that globalization is the reason why Lithuanian is losing its conservative features,
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but yes, Lithuanian is losing its conservative features all the time right now.
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Young people in towns, especially Vilnius and Kaunas, are not using accentuation markings.
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They are stressing syllables in a different way. Not in the way of the textbook.
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This is causing some immediate changes in the morphological structure of the language.
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For example, "ska-NUS" is the textbook word for "tasty", with the stress on the last syllable.
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Lihutanian youth often say "SKA-nus" instead.
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So you can see this shift in stress from the end of the words to the beginning of the word.
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Linguists understand that the last syllable is pronounced less and less stressed and at some point it will disappear,
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but this will not be in our lifetime languages don't evolve that fast.
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Complexity is a difficult question to assess.
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If you assess by the elements of actual sounds that are present in the ending syllables, then yes it is indeed.
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One of the well preserved features of Lithuanian which I mentioned earlier...
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Lithuanians attach the endings "-as" to many nouns.
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So the obvious example are names.
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People called Thomas are lucky. Honorary Lithuanian citizens thanks to the "-as" ending!
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But if you're called Niels, for example, you would become Nielsas in Lithuanian.
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This is not a feature of Slavic languages. It's an ancient element.
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It also appears primarily but not exclusively in the nominative case.
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Do you accept this as a measure of complexity? If so, then the answer to your question is "Yes, the Lithuanian system is more complex".
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It is one of the main reasons why Lithuanian rather than a Slavic language is seen as an example of an archaic Indo-European language.
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Well there are multiple differences between Latvian and Lithuanian.
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If a Lithuanian takes a written text in Latvian, they would be able to understand some words,
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but the two languages are not mutually intelligible in conversation.
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Slavic languages are famous for having the fewest divergences between each other,
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compared to all other sub-branches/sub-groups of Indo-European languages,
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so if you happen to speak one Slavic language and you go to a different Slavic country, you will probably be understood.
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This is not the case with Latvian and Lithuanian.
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In fact, I just started learning Latvian, and it's like starting from scratch.
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I know some differences due to historical phonology between those two languages,
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but the accentuation of Latvian has changed,
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and when the those two languages split from each other around 500-600 AD, the differences were really massive
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So you need to separately learn each of those languages.
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Oh, I'm very happy you asked!
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Visit Lithuania, spend some time there.
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I visited Lithuania several times.
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If you're a student, you might want to check some scholarships offered by the Lithuanian government and do a summer course there.
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Non-students can also participate in the summer courses of Kaunas University and Vilnius University, and possibly others.
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If you're a student you can also take a semester in Lithuania through the Erasmus program,
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and do one semester with different courses - not only Lithuanian languages courses,
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but also other subjects, through the medium of Lithuanian.
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Another tip - if you happen to come from Berlin and there is a summer course in Berlin, free of charge.
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But the the participant number is very limited, so if you're interested in this course please contact me privately; send me an email, or so on.
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Otherwise you can also contact me. I am doing online lessons on Lithuanian language, so that would be another possibility to learn Lithuanian.
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Well the last recommendation is; there are accentuated books on the Lithuanian language, some learning materials - use those.
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Contact me by email or in the Polyglot Gathering telegram group, let me know your mother tongue, and I will happily recommend you some materials.
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Well, yes, I think I've already answered that question.
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It is one of those things that parents and children often argue about.
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The older generation view the youth's use of Lithuanian as incorrect.
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The ones I presented today are all kept in the regular speech.
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There are some others in Old Lithuanian which are not, but I did not include those in my presentation.
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For example, in Old Lithuanian there is a "dual number system".
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So the Proto-Indo-European had 3 numbers.
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If you thought that the numeral declension of of Lithuanian was complex, you should check out the Proto-Indo-European declension system!
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It's 8 cases, and 3 different numbers.
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So Old Lithuanian has some "rests of duel" and some other archaic features lost to modern Lithuanian.
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But those which I covered in my presentation are all still used nowadays.
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Yes. It is a clear tendency to do that.
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New and complex Lithuanian words are often formed to express something more widely known as an English word [for example new types of technology].
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Language evolves naturally.
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You can't really force changes. You can try, but it will be impossible to completely remove words like (?)"chatas" from Lithuanian.
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Yes. They do. It's the same as that which is also used in Sanskrit. [i.e. Proto-Indo-European].
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So, thank you very much for your questions.
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If you happen to have any more questions, or if you happen to have a particular interest in the Lithuanian language,
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or in historical linguistics,
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please feel free to contact me.
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I'd be happy to answer all your questions.
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Thank you very much and have fun with the rest of the event.