Are we born to run?
-
0:00 - 0:04Running: it's basically just
right, left, right, left, yeah? -
0:04 - 0:06I mean, we've been doing it
for two million years, -
0:06 - 0:10so it's kind of arrogant to assume
that I've got something to say -
0:10 - 0:13that hasn't been said and performed
better a long time ago. -
0:13 - 0:16But the cool thing about running,
as I've discovered, -
0:16 - 0:19is that something bizarre happens
in this activity all the time. -
0:19 - 0:23Case in point: A couple months ago,
if you saw the New York City Marathon, -
0:23 - 0:27I guarantee you, you saw something
that no one has ever seen before. -
0:27 - 0:31An Ethiopian woman named Derartu Tulu
turns up at the starting line. -
0:32 - 0:33She's 37 years old.
-
0:33 - 0:36She hasn't won a marathon
of any kind in eight years, -
0:36 - 0:37and a few months previously,
-
0:37 - 0:39she had almost died in childbirth.
-
0:39 - 0:43Derartu Tulu was ready to hang it up
and retire from the sport, -
0:43 - 0:45but she decided she'd go for broke
-
0:45 - 0:48and try for one last big payday
in the marquee event, -
0:49 - 0:50the New York City Marathon.
-
0:50 - 0:54Except -- bad news for Derartu Tulu --
some other people had the same idea, -
0:54 - 0:56including the Olympic gold medalist,
-
0:56 - 0:59and Paula Radcliffe, who is a monster,
-
0:59 - 1:02the fastest woman marathoner
in history by far. -
1:02 - 1:05Only 10 minutes
off the men's world record, -
1:05 - 1:08Paula Radcliffe is essentially unbeatable.
-
1:08 - 1:10That's her competition.
-
1:10 - 1:13The gun goes off, and -- I mean,
she's not even an underdog; -
1:13 - 1:15she's, like, under the underdogs.
-
1:15 - 1:17But the under-underdog hangs tough,
-
1:17 - 1:20and 22 miles into a 26-mile race,
-
1:20 - 1:23there is Derartu Tulu,
up there with the lead pack. -
1:23 - 1:26Now, this is when something
really bizarre happens. -
1:26 - 1:30Paula Radcliffe, the one person
who is sure to snatch the big paycheck -
1:30 - 1:33from Derartu Tulu's under-underdog hands,
-
1:33 - 1:35suddenly grabs her leg
and starts to fall back. -
1:35 - 1:38So we all know what to do
in this situation, right? -
1:38 - 1:40You give her a quick crack
in the teeth with your elbow -
1:40 - 1:42and blaze for the finish line.
-
1:42 - 1:44Derartu Tulu ruins the script.
-
1:45 - 1:46Instead of taking off,
-
1:46 - 1:48she falls back and she grabs
Paula Radcliffe, -
1:48 - 1:51and says, "Come on.
Come with us. You can do it." -
1:51 - 1:53So Paula Radcliffe,
unfortunately, does it. -
1:53 - 1:55She catches up with the lead pack
-
1:55 - 1:57and is pushing toward the finish line.
-
1:57 - 1:58But then she falls back again.
-
1:58 - 2:01The second time, Derartu Tulu
grabs her and tries to pull her. -
2:01 - 2:04And Paula Radcliffe, at that point,
says, "I'm done. Go." -
2:05 - 2:07So that's a fantastic story,
and we all know how it ends. -
2:07 - 2:09She loses the check,
-
2:09 - 2:12but she goes home with something
bigger and more important. -
2:12 - 2:14Except Derartu Tulu
ruins the script again. -
2:14 - 2:18Instead of losing, she blazes
past the lead pack and wins. -
2:18 - 2:19Wins the New York City Marathon,
-
2:19 - 2:21goes home with a big fat check.
-
2:22 - 2:23It's a heartwarming story,
-
2:23 - 2:25but if you drill a little bit deeper,
-
2:25 - 2:29you've got to sort of wonder
about what exactly was going on there. -
2:29 - 2:31When you have two outliers
in one organism, -
2:31 - 2:32it's not a coincidence.
-
2:32 - 2:36When you have someone who is more
competitive and more compassionate -
2:36 - 2:39than anybody else in the race,
again, it's not a coincidence. -
2:39 - 2:41You show me a creature
with webbed feet and gills; -
2:41 - 2:43somehow water's involved.
-
2:43 - 2:46Someone with that kind of heart,
there's some kind of connection there. -
2:46 - 2:49And the answer to it,
I think, can be found -
2:49 - 2:51down in the Copper Canyons of Mexico,
-
2:51 - 2:55where there's a reclusive tribe,
called the Tarahumara Indians. -
2:55 - 2:59Now, the Tarahumara
are remarkable for three things. -
2:59 - 3:00Number one is:
-
3:00 - 3:05they have been living essentially
unchanged for the past 400 years. -
3:05 - 3:08When the conquistadors arrived
in North America you had two choices: -
3:08 - 3:11you either fight back and engage
or you could take off. -
3:11 - 3:13The Mayans and Aztecs engaged,
-
3:13 - 3:15which is why there are very few
Mayans and Aztecs. -
3:15 - 3:17The Tarahumara had a different strategy.
-
3:17 - 3:19They took off and hid
-
3:19 - 3:24in this labyrinthine, networking,
spider-webbing system of canyons -
3:24 - 3:25called the Copper Canyons.
-
3:25 - 3:29And there they've remained
since the 1600s, -
3:29 - 3:32essentially the same way
they've always been. -
3:32 - 3:35The second thing remarkable
about the Tarahumara is: -
3:36 - 3:39deep into old age -- 70 to 80 years old --
-
3:39 - 3:41these guys aren't running marathons;
-
3:41 - 3:43they're running mega-marathons.
-
3:43 - 3:44They're not doing 26 miles,
-
3:44 - 3:47they're doing 100, 150 miles at a time,
-
3:47 - 3:49and apparently without injury,
without problems. -
3:50 - 3:53The last thing that's remarkable
about the Tarahumara is: -
3:53 - 3:55all the things we're going
to be talking about today, -
3:55 - 3:58all the things we're trying to use
all of our technology -
3:58 - 3:59and brain power to solve --
-
3:59 - 4:02things like heart disease
and cholesterol and cancer; -
4:02 - 4:06crime, warfare and violence;
clinical depression -- all this stuff -- -
4:06 - 4:08the Tarahumara don't know
what you're talking about. -
4:08 - 4:12They are free from all
of these modern ailments. -
4:13 - 4:14So what's the connection?
-
4:14 - 4:16Again, we're talking about outliers;
-
4:16 - 4:18there's got to be some kind
of cause and effect. -
4:18 - 4:22Well, there are teams of scientists
at Harvard and the University of Utah -
4:22 - 4:24that are bending their brains
and trying to figure out -
4:25 - 4:26what the Tarahumara have known forever.
-
4:26 - 4:29They're trying to solve
those same kinds of mysteries. -
4:29 - 4:33And once again, a mystery
wrapped inside of a mystery -- -
4:33 - 4:36perhaps the key to Derartu Tulu
and the Tarahumara -
4:36 - 4:38is wrapped in three other
mysteries, which go like this: -
4:38 - 4:42Three things -- if you have the answer,
come up and take the microphone, -
4:42 - 4:44because nobody else knows the answer.
-
4:44 - 4:47If you know it, you're smarter
than anybody on planet Earth. -
4:47 - 4:48Mystery number one is this:
-
4:48 - 4:51Two million years ago,
the human brain exploded in size. -
4:51 - 4:53Australopithecus
had a tiny little pea brain. -
4:53 - 4:56Suddenly humans show up,
Homo erectus, big old melon head. -
4:56 - 4:58To have a brain of that size,
-
4:58 - 5:01you need to have a source
of condensed caloric energy. -
5:01 - 5:04In other words, early humans
are eating dead animals -- -
5:04 - 5:05no argument, that's a fact.
-
5:06 - 5:07The only problem is,
-
5:07 - 5:11the first edged weapons only appeared
about 200,000 years ago. -
5:11 - 5:13So somehow, for nearly two million years,
-
5:13 - 5:16we are killing animals
without any weapons. -
5:16 - 5:18Now, we're not using our strength,
-
5:18 - 5:20because we are the biggest
sissies in the jungle. -
5:20 - 5:22Every other animal
is stronger than we are, -
5:22 - 5:26they have fangs, they have claws,
they have nimbleness, they have speed. -
5:26 - 5:27We think Usain Bolt is fast.
-
5:27 - 5:30Usain Bolt can get
his ass kicked by a squirrel. -
5:30 - 5:31We're not fast.
-
5:31 - 5:32That would be an Olympic event:
-
5:32 - 5:35turn a squirrel loose,
whoever catches it gets a gold medal. -
5:35 - 5:36(Laughter)
-
5:36 - 5:39So no weapons, no speed,
no strength, no fangs, no claws. -
5:39 - 5:42How were we killing these animals?
Mystery number one. -
5:42 - 5:43Mystery number two:
-
5:43 - 5:46Women have been in the Olympics
for quite some time now, -
5:46 - 5:49but one thing that's remarkable
about all women sprinters: -
5:49 - 5:51they all suck; they're terrible.
-
5:51 - 5:54There's not a fast woman on the planet
and there never has been. -
5:54 - 5:57The fastest woman
to ever run a mile did it in 4:15. -
5:57 - 6:00I could throw a rock
and hit a high-school boy -
6:00 - 6:01who can run faster than 4:15.
-
6:01 - 6:03For some reason,
you guys are just really slow. -
6:03 - 6:05But --
-
6:05 - 6:06(Laughter)
-
6:06 - 6:08But, you get to the marathon
we were just talking about -- -
6:08 - 6:11you've only been allowed to run
the marathon for 20 years, -
6:11 - 6:14because prior to the 1980s,
medical science said -
6:14 - 6:17if a woman tried to run 26 miles --
does anyone know what would happen -
6:17 - 6:18if you tried to run 26 miles?
-
6:18 - 6:21Why you were banned
from the marathon before the 1980s? -
6:21 - 6:23Audience Member: Her uterus would be torn.
-
6:23 - 6:26Christopher McDougall:
Her uterus would be torn, yes. -
6:26 - 6:27Torn reproductive organs.
-
6:27 - 6:29The uterus would literally
fall out of the body. -
6:29 - 6:30(Laughter)
-
6:30 - 6:32Now, I've been to a lot of marathons,
-
6:32 - 6:34and I've yet to see any ...
-
6:34 - 6:37(Laughter)
-
6:37 - 6:38So it's only been 20 years
-
6:38 - 6:41that women have been allowed
to run the marathon. -
6:41 - 6:45In that very short learning curve,
you've gone from broken organs -
6:45 - 6:48up to the fact that you're only 10 minutes
off the male world record. -
6:48 - 6:51Then you go beyond 26 miles,
into the distance -
6:51 - 6:54that medical science also told us
would be fatal to humans -- -
6:54 - 6:56remember Pheidippides died
when he ran 26 miles -- -
6:56 - 6:59you get to 50 and 100 miles,
and suddenly, it's a different game. -
6:59 - 7:03You take a runner like Ann Trason
or Nikki Kimball or Jenn Shelton, -
7:03 - 7:06put them in a race of 50 or 100 miles
against anybody in the world, -
7:06 - 7:08and it's a coin toss who's going to win.
-
7:08 - 7:09I'll give you an example.
-
7:09 - 7:12A couple years ago,
Emily Baer signed up for a race -
7:12 - 7:14called the Hardrock 100,
-
7:14 - 7:16which tells you all you need
to know about the race. -
7:16 - 7:18They give you 48 hours
to finish this race. -
7:18 - 7:20Well, Emily Baer -- 500 runners --
-
7:20 - 7:23she finishes in eighth place,
in the top 10, -
7:23 - 7:25even though she stopped
at all the aid stations -
7:25 - 7:27to breastfeed her baby during the race.
-
7:27 - 7:28(Laughter)
-
7:28 - 7:30And yet, she beat 492 other people.
-
7:30 - 7:31The last mystery:
-
7:31 - 7:34Why is it that women get stronger
as distances get longer? -
7:34 - 7:35The third mystery is this:
-
7:35 - 7:39At the University of Utah,
they started tracking finishing times -
7:39 - 7:41for people running the marathon.
-
7:41 - 7:44What they found is that if you start
running the marathon at age 19, -
7:44 - 7:47you'll get progressively
faster, year by year, -
7:47 - 7:49until you reach your peak at age 27.
-
7:49 - 7:53And then after that,
you succumb to the rigors of time. -
7:53 - 7:54And you'll get slower and slower,
-
7:54 - 7:58until eventually you're back to running
the same speed you were at age 19. -
7:58 - 8:00So about seven, eight years
to reach your peak, -
8:00 - 8:02and then gradually you fall off your peak,
-
8:02 - 8:05until you go back to the starting point.
-
8:05 - 8:08You'd think it might take eight years
to go back to the same speed, -
8:08 - 8:11maybe 10 years -- no, it's 45 years.
-
8:11 - 8:1364-year-old men and women
-
8:13 - 8:16are running as fast
as they were at age 19. -
8:16 - 8:19Now, I defy you to come
up with any other physical activity -- -
8:19 - 8:22and please don't say golf --
something that's actually hard -- -
8:22 - 8:23(Laughter)
-
8:23 - 8:27where geriatrics are performing
as well as they did as teenagers. -
8:27 - 8:29So you have these three mysteries.
-
8:30 - 8:34Is there one piece in the puzzle
which might wrap all these things up? -
8:34 - 8:37You've got to be careful anytime
someone looks back in prehistory -
8:37 - 8:39and tries to give you
a global answer because, -
8:39 - 8:42it being prehistory, you can say
whatever the hell you want -
8:42 - 8:43and get away with it.
-
8:43 - 8:45But I'll submit this to you:
-
8:45 - 8:47If you put one piece in the middle
of this jigsaw puzzle, -
8:47 - 8:50suddenly it all starts
to form a coherent picture. -
8:50 - 8:52If you're wondering
why the Tarahumara don't fight -
8:52 - 8:54and don't die of heart disease,
-
8:54 - 8:57why a poor Ethiopian
woman named Derartu Tulu -
8:57 - 8:59can be the most compassionate
and yet the most competitive, -
8:59 - 9:03and why we somehow were able
to find food without weapons, -
9:03 - 9:05perhaps it's because humans,
-
9:05 - 9:09as much as we like to think of ourselves
as masters of the universe, -
9:09 - 9:12actually evolved as nothing more
than a pack of hunting dogs. -
9:12 - 9:16Maybe we evolved as a hunting pack animal.
-
9:16 - 9:19Because the one advantage
we have in the wilderness -- -
9:19 - 9:21again, it's not our fangs,
our claws or our speed -- -
9:21 - 9:24the only thing we do really well is sweat.
-
9:24 - 9:26We're really good
at being sweaty and smelly. -
9:26 - 9:30Better than any other mammal
on Earth, we can sweat really well. -
9:30 - 9:34But the advantage of that little bit
of social discomfort -
9:34 - 9:39is the fact that, when it comes to running
under hot heat for long distances, -
9:39 - 9:41we're superb -- the best on the planet.
-
9:41 - 9:43You take a horse on a hot day,
-
9:43 - 9:46and after about five or six miles,
that horse has a choice: -
9:46 - 9:49it's either going to breathe
or it's going to cool off. -
9:49 - 9:50But it ain't doing both. We can.
-
9:51 - 9:54So what if we evolved
as hunting pack animals? -
9:54 - 9:57What if the only natural advantage
we had in the world -
9:57 - 10:00was the fact that we could
get together as a group, -
10:00 - 10:03go out there on that African savanna,
pick out an antelope, -
10:03 - 10:05go out as a pack,
and run that thing to death? -
10:06 - 10:07That's all we could do.
-
10:07 - 10:09We could run really far on a hot day.
-
10:09 - 10:13Well, if that's true, a couple
other things had to be true as well. -
10:13 - 10:16The key to being part
of a hunting pack is the word "pack." -
10:16 - 10:18If you go out by yourself
and try to chase an antelope, -
10:18 - 10:21I guarantee there will be two cadavers
out in the savanna. -
10:21 - 10:23You need a pack to pull together.
-
10:23 - 10:25You need to have
those 64- and 65-year-olds -
10:25 - 10:27who have been doing this for a long time
-
10:27 - 10:30to understand which antelope
you're trying to catch. -
10:30 - 10:32The herd explodes
and it gathers back again. -
10:32 - 10:34Those expert trackers
have to be part of the pack. -
10:34 - 10:36They can't be 10 miles behind.
-
10:36 - 10:38You need the women
and the adolescents there, -
10:38 - 10:41because the two times in your life
you most benefit from animal protein -
10:41 - 10:44is when you're a nursing mother
and a developing adolescent. -
10:44 - 10:47It makes no sense to have
the antelope over there, dead, -
10:47 - 10:49and the people who want
to eat it 50 miles away. -
10:49 - 10:51They need to be part of the pack.
-
10:51 - 10:53You need those 27-year-old studs
at the peak of their powers -
10:53 - 10:55ready to drop the kill,
-
10:55 - 10:58and you need those teenagers
who are learning the whole thing involved. -
10:58 - 10:59The pack stays together.
-
10:59 - 11:03Another thing that has to be true:
this pack cannot be materialistic. -
11:03 - 11:06You can't be hauling all your crap around,
trying to chase the antelope. -
11:06 - 11:08You can't be a pissed-off pack.
-
11:08 - 11:11You can't be bearing grudges, like,
"I'm not chasing that guy's antelope. -
11:11 - 11:14He pissed me off.
Let him go chase his own antelope." -
11:14 - 11:16The pack has got to be able
to swallow its ego, -
11:16 - 11:18be cooperative, and pull together.
-
11:18 - 11:21What you end up with, in other words,
-
11:21 - 11:24is a culture remarkably similar
to the Tarahumara, -
11:24 - 11:28a tribe that has remained
unchanged since the Stone Age. -
11:29 - 11:30It's a really compelling argument
-
11:30 - 11:34that maybe the Tarahumara are doing
exactly what all of us had done -
11:34 - 11:35for two million years,
-
11:35 - 11:38that it's us in modern times
who have sort of gone off the path. -
11:38 - 11:42You know, we look at running
as this kind of alien, foreign thing, -
11:42 - 11:45this punishment you've got to do
because you ate pizza the night before. -
11:45 - 11:47But maybe it's something different.
-
11:47 - 11:50Maybe we're the ones who have taken
this natural advantage we had -
11:50 - 11:51and we spoiled it.
-
11:52 - 11:54How do we spoil it?
Well, how do we spoil anything? -
11:54 - 11:56We try to cash in on it. Right?
-
11:56 - 11:59We try to can it and package it
and make it "better" -
11:59 - 12:00and then sell it to people.
-
12:00 - 12:03And then what happened was,
we started creating -
12:03 - 12:06these fancy cushioned things
which can make running "better," -
12:06 - 12:08called running shoes.
-
12:08 - 12:11The reason I get personally
pissed-off about running shoes -
12:11 - 12:14is because I bought a million of them
and I kept getting hurt. -
12:14 - 12:16And I think if anybody in here runs --
-
12:16 - 12:17I just had a conversation with Carol.
-
12:17 - 12:21We talked for two minutes backstage,
and she talked about plantar fasciitis. -
12:21 - 12:24You talk to a runner,
I guarantee within 30 seconds, -
12:24 - 12:25the conversation turns to injury.
-
12:25 - 12:29So if humans evolved as runners,
if that's our one natural advantage, -
12:29 - 12:30then why are we so bad at it?
-
12:30 - 12:32Why do we keep getting hurt?
-
12:32 - 12:34A curious thing about running
and running injuries -
12:34 - 12:37is that the running injury
is new to our time. -
12:37 - 12:38If you read folklore and mythology,
-
12:38 - 12:40any kind of myths, any kind of tall tales,
-
12:40 - 12:44running is always associated
with freedom and vitality -
12:44 - 12:46and youthfulness and eternal vigor.
-
12:46 - 12:49It's only in our lifetime
that running has become associated -
12:49 - 12:50with fear and pain.
-
12:50 - 12:54Geronimo used to say, "My only friends
are my legs. I only trust my legs." -
12:54 - 12:58That's because an Apache triathlon
used to be you'd run 50 miles -
12:58 - 12:59across the desert,
-
12:59 - 13:02engage in hand-to-hand combat,
steal a bunch of horses, -
13:02 - 13:03and slap leather for home.
-
13:03 - 13:07Geronimo was never saying, "You know
something, my Achilles -- I'm tapering. -
13:07 - 13:08I've got to take this week off."
-
13:08 - 13:11Or, "I need to cross-train.
I didn't do yoga. I'm not ready." -
13:11 - 13:13(Laughter)
-
13:13 - 13:15Humans ran and ran all the time.
-
13:15 - 13:17We are here today.
We have our digital technology. -
13:17 - 13:19All of our science comes from the fact
-
13:19 - 13:23that our ancestors were able to do
something extraordinary every day, -
13:23 - 13:25which was just rely
on their naked feet and legs -
13:25 - 13:27to run long distances.
-
13:27 - 13:29So how do we get back to that again?
-
13:29 - 13:31Well, I would submit
to you the first thing is: -
13:31 - 13:34get rid of all packaging,
all the sales, all the marketing. -
13:34 - 13:36Get rid of all the stinking running shoes.
-
13:36 - 13:38Stop focusing on urban marathons,
-
13:38 - 13:41which, if you do four hours, you suck,
-
13:41 - 13:43and if you do 3:59:59, you're awesome,
-
13:43 - 13:45because you qualified for another race.
-
13:45 - 13:48We need to get back to that sense
of playfulness and joyfulness -
13:48 - 13:51and, I would say, nakedness,
-
13:51 - 13:53that has made the Tarahumara
-
13:53 - 13:55one of the healthiest and serene
cultures in our time. -
13:56 - 13:58So what's the benefit? So what?
-
13:58 - 14:01So you burn off the Häagen-Dazs
from the night before. -
14:01 - 14:03But maybe there's another
benefit there as well. -
14:03 - 14:06Without getting too extreme about this,
-
14:06 - 14:11imagine a world where everybody
could go out the door -
14:11 - 14:13and engage in the kind of exercise
-
14:13 - 14:16that's going to make them
more relaxed, more serene, -
14:16 - 14:17more healthy,
-
14:17 - 14:19burn off stress --
-
14:19 - 14:22where you don't come back into your office
a raging maniac anymore, -
14:22 - 14:24or go home with a lot of stress
on top of you again. -
14:24 - 14:27Maybe there's something
between what we are today -
14:27 - 14:29and what the Tarahumara have always been.
-
14:29 - 14:31I don't say let's go back
to the Copper Canyons -
14:31 - 14:35and live on corn and maize,
which is the Tarahumara's preferred diet, -
14:35 - 14:37but maybe there's somewhere in between.
-
14:37 - 14:39And if we find that thing,
-
14:39 - 14:41maybe there is a big fat
Nobel Prize out there. -
14:41 - 14:46Because if somebody could find a way
to restore that natural ability -
14:46 - 14:48that we all enjoyed
for most of our existence -
14:48 - 14:50up until the 1970s or so,
-
14:50 - 14:55the benefits -- social and physical
and political and mental -- -
14:55 - 14:57could be astounding.
-
14:57 - 15:01What I've been seeing today
is there is a growing subculture -
15:01 - 15:04of barefoot runners,
people who've gotten rid of their shoes. -
15:04 - 15:06And what they have found uniformly is,
-
15:06 - 15:08you get rid of the shoes,
you get rid of the stress, -
15:08 - 15:11you get rid of the injuries
and the ailments. -
15:11 - 15:13And what you find is something
the Tarahumara have known -
15:13 - 15:15for a very long time:
-
15:15 - 15:16that this can be a whole lot of fun.
-
15:16 - 15:18I've experienced it personally myself.
-
15:18 - 15:22I was injured all my life; then
in my early 40s, I got rid of my shoes -
15:22 - 15:24and my running ailments
have gone away, too. -
15:24 - 15:26So hopefully it's something
we can all benefit from. -
15:26 - 15:29I appreciate your listening to this story.
-
15:29 - 15:30Thanks very much.
-
15:30 - 15:32(Applause)
- Title:
- Are we born to run?
- Speaker:
- Christopher McDougall
- Description:
-
Christopher McDougall explores the mysteries of the human desire to run. How did running help early humans survive -- and what urges from our ancient ancestors spur us on today? At TEDxPennQuarter, McDougall tells the story of the marathoner with a heart of gold, the unlikely ultra-runner, and the hidden tribe in Mexico that runs to live.
- Video Language:
- English
- Team:
- closed TED
- Project:
- TEDTalks
- Duration:
- 15:31
Krystian Aparta commented on English subtitles for Are we born to run? | ||
Krystian Aparta edited English subtitles for Are we born to run? | ||
Krystian Aparta edited English subtitles for Are we born to run? | ||
TED edited English subtitles for Are we born to run? | ||
TED added a translation |
Krystian Aparta
The English transcript was updated on 11/24/2016.