[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:01.07,0:00:04.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'm here to tell you about \Nthe real search for alien life.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.90,0:00:07.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not little green humanoids\Narriving in shiny UFOs,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:07.93,0:00:09.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,although that would be nice.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:09.68,0:00:11.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it's the search for planets
Dialogue: 0,0:00:11.49,0:00:14.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,orbiting stars far away.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:14.06,0:00:15.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Every star in our sky is a sun.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:15.78,0:00:17.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if our sun has planets --
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.16,0:00:18.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, etc.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:18.80,0:00:21.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Surely those other stars should\Nhave planets also
Dialogue: 0,0:00:21.43,0:00:23.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- and they do.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:23.29,0:00:24.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the last two decades,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.70,0:00:28.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,astronomers have found\Nthousands of exoplanets.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:28.71,0:00:31.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our night sky is literally\Nteeming with exoplanets.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:31.34,0:00:32.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know, statistically speaking,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:32.91,0:00:36.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that every star has at least one planet.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.15,0:00:37.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in the search for planets,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.98,0:00:40.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and in the future, planets \Nthat might be like earth,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:40.78,0:00:42.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we're able to help address\N
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.17,0:00:44.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some of the most amazing\Nand mysterious questions
Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.87,0:00:47.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that have faced humankind for centuries.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:47.99,0:00:49.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why are we here?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.39,0:00:51.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why does our universe exist?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:51.61,0:00:54.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How did earth form and evolve?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:54.07,0:00:57.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How and why did life originate\Nand populate our planet?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.88,0:01:00.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The second question that\Nwe often think about is:
Dialogue: 0,0:01:00.56,0:01:03.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Are we alone?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.04,0:01:05.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Is there life out there?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:05.32,0:01:07.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Who is out there?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:07.30,0:01:09.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You know, this question\Nhas been around
Dialogue: 0,0:01:09.19,0:01:10.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for thousands of years,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.41,0:01:12.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,since at least the time\Nof the Greek philosophers.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:12.94,0:01:15.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, I'm here to tell you\Njust how close we're getting
Dialogue: 0,0:01:15.55,0:01:18.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to finding out the answer\Nto this question.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.45,0:01:20.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the first time in human history
Dialogue: 0,0:01:20.26,0:01:22.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that this really is within reach for us.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:22.97,0:01:24.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now when I think about\Nthe possibilities
Dialogue: 0,0:01:24.98,0:01:26.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for life out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:26.30,0:01:28.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think of the fact that our sun
Dialogue: 0,0:01:28.55,0:01:30.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is but one of many stars.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:30.82,0:01:32.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a photograph of a real galaxy,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:32.73,0:01:35.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we think our milky way \Nlooks like this galaxy.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:35.20,0:01:37.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a collection of bound stars.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:37.03,0:01:41.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But our milky way is one of\Nhundreds of billions of stars
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.27,0:01:45.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and our galaxy is one of upwards\Nof hundreds of billions of galaxies.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:45.62,0:01:49.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Knowing that small planets \Nare very common,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:49.50,0:01:52.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can just do the math.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.04,0:01:55.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And there are just so many stars\Nand so many planets out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:55.45,0:01:58.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that surely, there must be life\Nsomewhere out there.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:58.78,0:02:02.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, the biologists get furious \Nwith me for saying that,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:02.74,0:02:05.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because we have absolutely no evidence.\N
Dialogue: 0,0:02:05.08,0:02:07.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for life beyond earth, yet.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.23,0:02:10.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, if we were able to look\Nat our galaxy from the outside
Dialogue: 0,0:02:10.82,0:02:14.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and zoom in to where our sun is,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:14.03,0:02:16.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we see a real map of the stars.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:16.20,0:02:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the highlighted stars are\Nthose with known exoplanets.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:19.00,0:02:22.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is really just\Nthe tip of the iceberg.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:22.86,0:02:26.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here, this animation is zooming in\Nonto our solar system.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:26.80,0:02:28.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you'll see here the planets\N
Dialogue: 0,0:02:28.38,0:02:31.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as well as some spacecraft\Nthat are also orbiting our sun.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:31.58,0:02:35.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now if we can imagine going to\Nthe west coast of North America,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.55,0:02:38.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and looking out at the night sky,\N
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.72,0:02:40.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,here's what we'd see on a spring night.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:40.81,0:02:42.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you can see\Nthe constellations overlaid
Dialogue: 0,0:02:42.84,0:02:45.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and again, so many stars with planets.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:45.31,0:02:47.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's a special patch of the sky
Dialogue: 0,0:02:47.38,0:02:49.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where we have thousands of planets.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.35,0:02:53.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is where the Kepler Space Telescope\Nfocused for many years.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:53.84,0:02:58.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Let's zoom in and look at\None of the favorite exoplanets.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.74,0:03:02.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This star is called Kepler-186f.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:02.86,0:03:04.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a system of about five planets.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:04.60,0:03:06.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And by the way, most of these exoplanets,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:06.58,0:03:08.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we don't know too much about.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:08.80,0:03:11.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know their size, and their orbit\Nand things like that.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:11.76,0:03:15.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there's a very special planet\Nhere called Kepler-186f,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:15.80,0:03:19.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this planet is in a zone that is not \Ntoo far from the star,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:19.72,0:03:23.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that the temperature may be \Njust right for life.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.28,0:03:25.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here, the artist conniption\Nis just zooming in
Dialogue: 0,0:03:25.59,0:03:28.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and showing you what that planet\Nmight be like.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.19,0:03:36.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, many people have this\Nromantic notion of astronomers
Dialogue: 0,0:03:36.95,0:03:40.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,going to the telescope\Non a lonely mountaintop
Dialogue: 0,0:03:40.28,0:03:42.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and looking at the spectacular night sky
Dialogue: 0,0:03:42.41,0:03:44.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through a big telescope.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:44.09,0:03:47.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But actually, we just work on\Nour computers like everyone else
Dialogue: 0,0:03:47.46,0:03:50.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we get our data by email\Nor by loading from a database.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:50.91,0:03:53.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So instead of coming here \Nto tell you about
Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.05,0:03:56.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the somewhat tedious nature \Nof the data and data analysis
Dialogue: 0,0:03:56.80,0:03:58.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the complex computer models we make,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:58.89,0:04:01.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I have a different way to try \Nto explain to you
Dialogue: 0,0:04:01.26,0:04:03.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some of the things that we're \Nthinking about exoplanets.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:03.18,0:04:04.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's a travel poster:
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.91,0:04:07.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Kepler-186f,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:07.32,0:04:10.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Where the grass is always redder \Non the other side."
Dialogue: 0,0:04:10.23,0:04:13.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's because Kepler-186f\Norbits a red star,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:13.00,0:04:16.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we're just speculating that\Nperhaps the plants there,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.32,0:04:19.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if there is vegetation that \Ndoes photosynthesis,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.16,0:04:22.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it has different pigments and looks red.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:22.30,0:04:26.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Enjoy the gravity on HD 40307g, "
Dialogue: 0,0:04:26.52,0:04:28.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a super-earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.19,0:04:30.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This planet is more massive than earth
Dialogue: 0,0:04:30.18,0:04:32.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and has a higher surface gravity.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.50,0:04:35.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Relax on Kepler-16b,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.42,0:04:38.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where your shadow always has company."
Dialogue: 0,0:04:38.17,0:04:43.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know of a dozen planets\Nthat orbit two stars,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:43.54,0:04:45.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there's likely many more out there.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.51,0:04:47.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we could visit one of those planets,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:47.69,0:04:49.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you literally would see two sunsets
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.60,0:04:51.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and have two shadows.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:51.44,0:04:53.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So actually, science fiction \Ngot some things right,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.97,0:04:55.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Tatooine from Star Wars.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:55.76,0:04:58.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I have a couple of other \Nfavorite exoplanets
Dialogue: 0,0:04:58.14,0:04:59.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to tell you about.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:59.77,0:05:01.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This one is Kepler-10b,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:01.39,0:05:03.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's a hot, hot planet.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:03.80,0:05:06.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It orbits over 50 times \Ncloser to its star
Dialogue: 0,0:05:06.60,0:05:08.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,than the earth does to our sun.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:08.96,0:05:10.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And actually, it's so hot
Dialogue: 0,0:05:10.40,0:05:12.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we can't visit any of these planets,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.28,0:05:13.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but if we could,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:13.05,0:05:15.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would melt long before\Nwe got there.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:15.05,0:05:17.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We think the surface is hot enough\Nto melt rock
Dialogue: 0,0:05:17.40,0:05:19.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and has liquid lava lakes.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:19.67,0:05:21.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We use 1214b,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:21.32,0:05:22.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this planet,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.01,0:05:23.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we know the mass and the size
Dialogue: 0,0:05:23.11,0:05:24.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it has a fairly low density,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:24.80,0:05:25.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's somewhat warm.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.97,0:05:28.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We actually don't know really\Nanything about this planet.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:28.20,0:05:31.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One possibility is that \Nit's a water world,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:31.29,0:05:34.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like a scaled-up version of one\Nof Jupiter's icy moons
Dialogue: 0,0:05:34.53,0:05:37.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that might be 50 percent water by mass.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:37.55,0:05:40.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In this case, it would have\Na thick steam atmosphere
Dialogue: 0,0:05:40.31,0:05:42.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,overlaying an ocean,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:42.51,0:05:43.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not of liquid water,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:43.73,0:05:45.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but of an exotic form of water,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:45.95,0:05:46.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a superfluid --
Dialogue: 0,0:05:46.76,0:05:48.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not quite a gas, not quite a liquid.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:48.99,0:05:50.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Under that wouldn't be rock,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:50.29,0:05:54.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but a form of high pressure ice, \Nlike (word)
Dialogue: 0,0:05:54.71,0:05:56.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So out of all these planets out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:56.96,0:06:00.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the variety is \Njust simply astonishing,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:00.28,0:06:02.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we mostly want to find the planets
Dialogue: 0,0:06:02.12,0:06:05.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that are Goldie Locks planets,\Nwe call them,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:05.18,0:06:07.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not too big, not too small
Dialogue: 0,0:06:07.12,0:06:08.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not too hot, not too cold --
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.100,0:06:10.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just right for life.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:10.86,0:06:12.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But to do that, we'd have to \Nbe able to look
Dialogue: 0,0:06:12.50,0:06:14.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at the planet's atmosphere
Dialogue: 0,0:06:14.27,0:06:16.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because the atmosphere acts\Nlike a blanket
Dialogue: 0,0:06:16.06,0:06:16.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,trapping heat --
Dialogue: 0,0:06:16.98,0:06:18.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the greenhouse effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:18.34,0:06:21.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We have to be able to asses\Nthe greenhouse gasses
Dialogue: 0,0:06:21.18,0:06:23.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on other planets.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:23.37,0:06:25.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, science fiction got\Nsome things wrong.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.80,0:06:29.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Star Trek Enterprise had to travel\Nvast distances
Dialogue: 0,0:06:29.33,0:06:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at incredible speeds \Nto orbit other planets
Dialogue: 0,0:06:31.00,0:06:32.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that First officer Spok \Ncould further analyze
Dialogue: 0,0:06:32.64,0:06:37.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the atmosphere and see\Nif the planet
Dialogue: 0,0:06:37.62,0:06:40.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was habitable or if \Nthere were lifeforms there.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:40.100,0:06:43.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, we don't need\Nto travel at warp speeds
Dialogue: 0,0:06:43.26,0:06:45.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to see other planets' atmospheres,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.63,0:06:47.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,although I don't want to dissuade \Nany budding engineers
Dialogue: 0,0:06:47.98,0:06:50.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from figuring out how to do that.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:50.17,0:06:52.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We actually can and do study\Nplanet atmospheres
Dialogue: 0,0:06:52.48,0:06:54.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from here, from earth orbit.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:54.12,0:06:55.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a picture, a photograph
Dialogue: 0,0:06:55.35,0:06:57.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the Hubble Space Telescope
Dialogue: 0,0:06:57.32,0:07:00.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,taken by the shuttle Atlantis\Nas it was departing
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.10,0:07:02.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,after the last human space \Nflight to Hubble.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:02.65,0:07:03.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They installed a new camera, actually,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:03.93,0:07:06.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we use for exoplanet atmospheres.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:06.64,0:07:11.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so far, we've been able to study\Ndozens of exoplanet atmospheres,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:11.37,0:07:13.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about six of them in great detail.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:13.68,0:07:15.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But those are not small planets like earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:15.71,0:07:17.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They're big, hot planets
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.44,0:07:18.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that are easy to see.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:18.43,0:07:19.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We're not ready,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:19.19,0:07:21.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we don't have the right technology yet
Dialogue: 0,0:07:21.07,0:07:24.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to study small exoplanets.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:24.36,0:07:25.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But nevertheless,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:25.16,0:07:26.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I wanted to try to explain to you
Dialogue: 0,0:07:26.92,0:07:29.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how we study exoplanet atmospheres.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:29.87,0:07:32.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I want you to image, for a moment,\Na rainbow.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:32.75,0:07:35.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if we could look \Nat this rainbow closely,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:35.52,0:07:39.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would see that some\Ndark lines are missing.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:39.29,0:07:40.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And here's our sun,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:40.57,0:07:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the white light of our sun split up,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:42.00,0:07:44.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not by raindrops, but by a spectrograph.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:44.95,0:07:47.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you can see all these dark, vertical lines.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:47.15,0:07:48.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some are narrow, some are wide,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:48.73,0:07:50.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some are shaded at the edges.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:50.88,0:07:54.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is how astronomers have studied\Nobjects in the heavens
Dialogue: 0,0:07:54.06,0:07:55.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,literally, for over a century.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.81,0:07:58.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So here, each different atom and molecule
Dialogue: 0,0:07:58.89,0:07:59.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,has a special set of lines,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:59.58,0:08:01.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a fingerprint, if you will.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:01.16,0:08:04.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's how we study\Nexoplanet atmospheres.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:04.06,0:08:05.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And, I'll just never forget\Nwhen I started working
Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.90,0:08:08.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on exoplanet atmospheres\N20 years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:08.44,0:08:09.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how many people told me,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:09.55,0:08:11.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"This will never happen,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.69,0:08:13.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we'll never be able to study them.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:13.09,0:08:14.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why are you bothering?"
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.27,0:08:15.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's why I'm pleased \Nto tell you about
Dialogue: 0,0:08:15.35,0:08:16.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all the atmospheres studied now,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:16.23,0:08:18.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and this is really a whole field\Nof its own.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:18.72,0:08:21.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So when it comes to other planets,\Nother earths,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:21.56,0:08:23.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the future when we can observe them,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:23.66,0:08:26.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what kind of gasses would be looking for?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.37,0:08:29.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, you know, our own earth has oxygen\Nin the atmosphere
Dialogue: 0,0:08:29.34,0:08:31.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to 20 percent by volume.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:31.69,0:08:33.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's a lot of oxygen.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:33.46,0:08:35.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But without plants \Nand photosynthetic life,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:35.81,0:08:37.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there would be no oxygen,\Nvirtually no oxygen
Dialogue: 0,0:08:37.66,0:08:40.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in our atmosphere.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:40.30,0:08:42.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So oxygen is here because of life
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.06,0:08:44.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and our goal then is to look for gasses
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.10,0:08:46.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in other planet atmospheres,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:46.19,0:08:48.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,gasses that don't belong,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.26,0:08:50.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we might be able to attribute to life.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.88,0:08:52.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But which molecules should \Nwe search for?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:52.77,0:08:55.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I actually told you how diverse\Nexoplanets are,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:55.45,0:08:57.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we expect that to continue in the future
Dialogue: 0,0:08:57.38,0:08:58.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when we find other earths.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:58.89,0:09:00.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's one of the main things\NI'm working on now,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:00.62,0:09:02.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I have a theory about this.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:02.89,0:09:05.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It reminds me that nearly everyday,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:05.24,0:09:06.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I receive an email --
Dialogue: 0,0:09:06.49,0:09:07.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,email or emails--
Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.42,0:09:11.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from someone with a crazy theory\Nabout physics, gravity
Dialogue: 0,0:09:11.74,0:09:13.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or cosmology or some such.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:13.42,0:09:18.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Please don't email me\None of your crazy theories.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:18.02,0:09:20.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, I have my own crazy theory.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:20.21,0:09:23.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, who does the MIT professor go to?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:23.08,0:09:26.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well I emailed a Nobel Laureate \Nin physiology and medicine
Dialogue: 0,0:09:26.94,0:09:28.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he said, "Sure, come and talk to me."
Dialogue: 0,0:09:28.98,0:09:30.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I brought my two biochemistry frirnds
Dialogue: 0,0:09:30.60,0:09:32.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we went to talk to him\Nabout our crazy theory.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:32.86,0:09:36.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that theory was that life produces\Nall small molecules,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.80,0:09:38.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so many molecules.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:38.86,0:09:40.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Like, everything I could think of,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.31,0:09:41.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but not being a chemist.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:41.31,0:09:42.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Think about it:
Dialogue: 0,0:09:42.15,0:09:44.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:44.68,0:09:46.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,molecular hydrogen, molecular nitrogen,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:46.84,0:09:47.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,methane, methal choloride (?) --
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.72,0:09:48.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so many gasses,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:48.82,0:09:51.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they also exist for other reasons,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:51.09,0:09:53.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but just life even produces ozone.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:53.12,0:09:54.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we go to talk to him about this,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:54.43,0:09:56.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and immediately, he shot down\Nthe theory.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:56.92,0:09:59.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He found an example that didn't exist.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.52,0:10:01.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, we went back to the drawing board
Dialogue: 0,0:10:01.45,0:10:04.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we actually think we have\Nfound something
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.09,0:10:05.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,very interesting in another field.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:05.34,0:10:06.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But back to exoplanets,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:06.65,0:10:09.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the point is that life produces\Nso many different types of gases,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:09.95,0:10:12.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,literally thousands of gasses.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:12.40,0:10:13.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so what we're doing now \Nis just trying to figure out
Dialogue: 0,0:10:13.46,0:10:16.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on which types of exoplanets,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:16.49,0:10:22.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which gasses could be attributed to life.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:22.43,0:10:24.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so when it comes time
Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.58,0:10:25.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we find gasses on exoplanet\Natmospheres,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:25.63,0:10:28.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we won't know if they're \Nbeing produced
Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.42,0:10:30.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by intelligent aliens or by trees,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:30.98,0:10:31.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or earth(?) swamp,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:31.23,0:10:35.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or even just by simple, single celled \Nmicrobial life.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:35.76,0:10:36.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so working on the models
Dialogue: 0,0:10:36.99,0:10:38.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and thinking about biochemistry
Dialogue: 0,0:10:38.79,0:10:40.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's all well and good.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:40.01,0:10:42.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But a really big challenge ahead of us
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.11,0:10:42.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is how.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.92,0:10:45.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How are we going to find these planets?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.29,0:10:45.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They're actually many ways to find planets,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:46.97,0:10:48.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,several different ways.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:48.85,0:10:50.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the one that I'm most focused on
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.68,0:10:53.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is how can we open a gateway
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.11,0:10:53.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that in the future,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.100,0:10:56.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we can find hundreds of earths.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:56.09,0:10:58.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We have a real shot\Nat finding signs of life.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:58.45,0:11:01.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And actually, I just finished\Nleading a two-year project
Dialogue: 0,0:11:01.51,0:11:04.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in this very special phase\Nof a concept
Dialogue: 0,0:11:04.39,0:11:06.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we call the star shade.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:06.17,0:11:09.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the star shade is very\Nspecially shaped screen
Dialogue: 0,0:11:09.14,0:11:11.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the goal is to fly that star shade
Dialogue: 0,0:11:11.04,0:11:14.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so it blocks out the light of a star
Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.15,0:11:17.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that a telescope can see \Nthe planets directly.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:17.12,0:11:19.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here, you can see myself \Nand two team members
Dialogue: 0,0:11:19.53,0:11:21.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,holding up one small part of the star shade.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:21.99,0:11:23.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's shaped like a giant flower,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:23.35,0:11:27.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and this is one of the prototype petals.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:27.16,0:11:31.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The concept is that a star shade \Nand telescope launch together,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:31.60,0:11:35.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the petals unfurling\Nfrom the stowed position.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:35.15,0:11:37.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The central trust would expand,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:37.22,0:11:40.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the petals snapping into place.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:40.09,0:11:42.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, this has to be made very precisely,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.59,0:11:43.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,literally, the petals to microns
Dialogue: 0,0:11:43.96,0:11:46.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they have to deploy to millimeters.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:46.85,0:11:48.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this hole structure would have to fly
Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.82,0:11:51.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,tens of thousands of kilometers\Naway from the telescope,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:51.22,0:11:52.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's about tens of meters in diameter.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:52.39,0:11:54.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the goal is to block out\Nthe starlight to incredible percussion
Dialogue: 0,0:11:54.98,0:12:00.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that we'd be able to see \Nthe planets directly.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:00.08,0:12:04.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It has to be a very special shape
Dialogue: 0,0:12:04.95,0:12:07.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because of the physics of defraction.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:07.88,0:12:09.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now this is a really project \Nthat we worked on,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:09.74,0:12:12.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,literally, you would not believe how hard.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:12.56,0:12:14.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just so you believe that it's \Nnot just in movie format,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:14.92,0:12:18.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,here's a real photograph\Nof a second generation
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.19,0:12:21.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,star shade deployment \Ntest bed in the lab.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.89,0:12:22.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in this case,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:22.65,0:12:23.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I just want you to know,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:23.50,0:12:25.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that that central trust\Nhas heritage left over
Dialogue: 0,0:12:25.79,0:12:29.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from large radio deployables in space.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:29.79,0:12:31.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So after all of that hard work
Dialogue: 0,0:12:31.05,0:12:33.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where we try to think of all \Nthe crazy gasses
Dialogue: 0,0:12:33.56,0:12:35.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that might be out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:35.58,0:12:38.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we build the very\Ncomplicated space telescopes,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:38.01,0:12:41.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what are we going to find?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:41.04,0:12:42.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, in the best case,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.51,0:12:46.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we will find an image \Nof another eco-earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:46.55,0:12:48.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's earth as a pale blue dot.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:48.61,0:12:51.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is actually a real photograph\Nof earth
Dialogue: 0,0:12:51.19,0:12:53.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,taken by the Voyager I spacecraft,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:53.32,0:12:55.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,four billion miles away.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.61,0:12:59.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that red light is just scattered light\Nin the camera optics.\N
Dialogue: 0,0:12:59.42,0:13:02.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what's so awesome to consider\Nis that
Dialogue: 0,0:13:02.52,0:13:07.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if there are intelligent aliens\Norbiting on a planet
Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.21,0:13:08.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,around a star near to us
Dialogue: 0,0:13:08.79,0:13:10.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they build complicated\Nspace telescopes
Dialogue: 0,0:13:10.86,0:13:12.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of a kind we're trying to build,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:12.91,0:13:15.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all they'll see is this pale blue dot,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:15.59,0:13:17.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a pinprick of light.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:17.73,0:13:20.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so sometimes when I pause\Nto think about
Dialogue: 0,0:13:20.87,0:13:24.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,my professional struggle\Nand huge ambition,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:24.73,0:13:27.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's hard to think about that\Nin contrast
Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.60,0:13:30.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the vastness of the universe.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:30.35,0:13:33.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But nonetheless, I am devoting\Nthe rest of my life
Dialogue: 0,0:13:33.91,0:13:36.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to finding another earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.44,0:13:39.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I can guarantee that in \Nthe next generation
Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.87,0:13:40.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of space telescopes,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:40.94,0:13:42.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the second generation,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:42.51,0:13:46.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we will have the capability to find\Nand identity other earths.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:46.88,0:13:48.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the capability to split up \Nthe starlight
Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.12,0:13:52.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that we can look for gasses
Dialogue: 0,0:13:52.21,0:13:55.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and assess the greenhouse gasses\Nin the atmosphere,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:55.98,0:13:57.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,estimate the surface temperature,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:57.34,0:14:00.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and look for signs of life.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:00.01,0:14:01.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there's more,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:01.41,0:14:03.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in this case of searching\Nfor other planets like earth,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:03.74,0:14:07.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we are making a new kind of map
Dialogue: 0,0:14:07.41,0:14:10.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the nearby stars and \Nof the planets orbiting them,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:10.47,0:14:12.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,including stars that actually might be
Dialogue: 0,0:14:12.79,0:14:15.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,inhabitable by humans.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:15.22,0:14:17.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so I envision that our descendants,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:17.67,0:14:19.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hundreds of years from now,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:19.15,0:14:21.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,will embark on an interstellar journey
Dialogue: 0,0:14:21.51,0:14:23.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to other worlds.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:23.06,0:14:26.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they will look back at all of us
Dialogue: 0,0:14:26.26,0:14:29.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the generation who first found\Nthe earth-like worlds.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:29.89,0:14:30.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:30.78,0:14:37.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.79,0:14:38.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,June Cohen: And I give you, \Nfor a question,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:38.97,0:14:41.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Rosetta Mission manager Fred Jansen.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:41.76,0:14:43.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Fred Jansen: You mentioned halfway through
Dialogue: 0,0:14:43.43,0:14:47.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the technology to actually look\Nat the spectrum
Dialogue: 0,0:14:47.68,0:14:50.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of an exoplanet-like earth\Nis not there yet.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:50.74,0:14:52.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When do you expect this will be there
Dialogue: 0,0:14:52.36,0:14:53.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what's needed?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:53.86,0:14:55.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sara Seager: Well actually, \Nwhat we expect is what\N
Dialogue: 0,0:14:55.62,0:14:58.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we call our next-generation\NHubble telescope.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:58.75,0:15:00.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is called the \NJames Webb Space Telescope,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:00.59,0:15:03.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that will launch in 2018
Dialogue: 0,0:15:03.04,0:15:04.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's what we're going to do,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:04.46,0:15:06.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we're going to look at \Na speicla kind of planet
Dialogue: 0,0:15:06.10,0:15:07.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,called transient exoplanets,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:07.86,0:15:09.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that will be our first shot
Dialogue: 0,0:15:09.64,0:15:11.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at studying small plants \Nfor gasses that might indicate
Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.42,0:15:12.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the planet is habitable.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:12.60,0:15:18.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,JC: I'm going to ask you one\Nfollow-up question, too, Sara,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.21,0:15:19.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the generalist.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:19.43,0:15:22.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I am really struck by the notion\Nin your career
Dialogue: 0,0:15:22.66,0:15:24.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the opposition you faced,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:24.22,0:15:25.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that when you began thinking about\Nexoplanets,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:25.98,0:15:28.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there was extreme skepticism\Nin the scientific community
Dialogue: 0,0:15:28.42,0:15:29.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they existed,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:29.23,0:15:30.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you proved them wrong.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:30.83,0:15:33.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What did it take to take that on?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:33.14,0:15:36.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,SS: Well, the thing is that\Nas scientists,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:36.46,0:15:37.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we're supposed to be skeptical.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:37.22,0:15:39.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's our job to make sure that\Nwhat the other peson is saying
Dialogue: 0,0:15:39.52,0:15:41.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,makes sense or not.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:41.16,0:15:43.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But being a scientist,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.81,0:15:46.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think you've seen it\Nfrom this session,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:46.52,0:15:48.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's like being an explorer.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:48.61,0:15:50.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have this immense curiosity,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:50.40,0:15:51.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this stubbornness,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.72,0:15:54.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this sort of resolute will\Nthat you will go forward
Dialogue: 0,0:15:54.13,0:15:56.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,no matter what people say.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:56.63,0:15:57.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,JC: I love that. \NThank you, Sara.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:57.76,0:16:02.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)