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00:00:16,700 --> 00:00:20,236
So there are lands
few and far between on Earth itself

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that are hospitable to humans
by any measure,

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00:00:24,062 --> 00:00:25,742
but survive we have.

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00:00:26,300 --> 00:00:30,556
Our primitive ancestors, when they found
their homes and livelihood endangered,

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they dared to make their way
into unfamiliar territories

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in search of better opportunities.

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And as the descendants of these explorers,

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we have their nomadic blood
coursing through our own veins.

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But at the same time,

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distracted by our bread and circuses

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and embroiled in the wars
that we have waged on each other,

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it seems that we have forgotten
this desire to explore.

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We, as a species, we're evolved uniquely

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for Earth, on Earth, and by Earth,

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and so content are we
with our living conditions

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that we have grown complacent
and just too busy

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to notice that its resources are finite,

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and that our Sun's life is also finite.

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While Mars and all the movies
made in its name

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have reinvigorated
the ethos for space travel,

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few of us seem to truly realize
that our species' fragile constitution

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is woefully unprepared
for long duration journeys into space.

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Let us take a trek
to your local national forest

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for a quick reality check.

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So just a quick show of hands here:

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how many of you think you would be able
to survive in this lush wilderness

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for a few days?

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Well, that's a lot of you.

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How about a few weeks?

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That's a decent amount.

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How about a few months?

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That's pretty good too.

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Now, let us imagine
that this local national forest

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experiences an eternal winter.

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Same questions: how many of you think you
would be able to survive for a few days?

36
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That's quite a lot.

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How about a few weeks?

38
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That's still a lot more
than I would be able to.

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So for a fun twist, let us imagine
that the only source of water available

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is trapped as frozen blocks
miles below the surface.

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Soil nutrients are so minimal
that no vegetation can be found,

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and of course hardly any atmosphere
exists to speak of.

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Such examples are only a few
of the many challenges we would face

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on a planet like Mars.

45
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So how do we steel ourselves for voyages
whose destinations are so far removed

46
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from a tropical vacation?

47
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Will we continuously ship supplies
from Planet Earth?

48
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Build space elevators,
or impossible miles of transport belts

49
00:02:53,160 --> 00:02:55,800
that tether your planet of choice
to our home planet?

50
00:02:56,603 --> 00:03:01,323
And how do we grow things like food
that grew up on Earth like us?

51
00:03:03,480 --> 00:03:05,040
But I'm getting ahead of myself.

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In our species' journey
to find a new home under a new sun,

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we are more likely than not
going to be spending much time

54
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in the journey itself,

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in space,

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on a ship, a hermetic flying can,

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possibly for many generations.

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The longest continuous amount of time
that any human has spent in space

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is in the vicinity of 12 to 14 months.

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From astronauts' experiences in space,

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we know that spending time
in a microgravity environment

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means bone loss, muscle atrophy,
cardiovascular problems,

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among many other complications

64
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that range for the physiological
to the psychological.

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And what about macrogravity,

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or any other variation
in gravitational pull

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of the planet that we find ourselves on?

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In short, our cosmic voyages
will be fraught with dangers

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both known and unknown.

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00:04:02,360 --> 00:04:06,376
So far we've been looking to this
new piece of mechanical technology

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00:04:06,400 --> 00:04:08,656
or that great next generation robot

72
00:04:08,680 --> 00:04:12,120
as part of a lineup to ensure
our species safe passage in space.

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Wonderful as they are,
I believe the time has come

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for us to complement
these bulky electronic giants

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with what nature has already invented:

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the microbe,

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a single-celled organism that is itself
a self-generating, self-replenishing,

78
00:04:30,760 --> 00:04:31,960
living machine.

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It requires fairly little to maintain,

80
00:04:35,990 --> 00:04:38,242
offers much flexibility in design

81
00:04:39,020 --> 00:04:42,340
and only asks to be carried
in a single plastic tube.

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The field of study that has enabled us
to utilize the capabilities of the microbe

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is known as synthetic biology.

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It comes from molecular biology,
which has given us antibiotics, vaccines

85
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and better ways to observe
the physiological nuances

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of the human body.

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Using the tools of synthetic biology,

88
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we can now edit the genes
of nearly any organism,

89
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microscopic or not,

90
00:05:06,140 --> 00:05:08,540
with incredible speed and fidelity.

91
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Given the limitations
of our man-made machines,

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synthetic biology will be a means for us
to engineer not only our food,

93
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our fuel and our environment,

94
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but also ourselves

95
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to compensate
for our physical inadequacies

96
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and to ensure our survival in space.

97
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To give you an example

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of how we can use synthetic biology
for space exploration,

99
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let us return to the Mars environment.

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The Martian soil composition is similar
to that of Hawaiian volcanic ash,

101
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with trace amounts of organic material.

102
00:05:43,200 --> 00:05:45,456
Let's say, hypothetically,

103
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what if martian soil
could actually support plant growth

104
00:05:48,240 --> 00:05:50,080
without using Earth-derived nutrients?

105
00:05:51,160 --> 00:05:53,256
The first question
we should probably ask is,

106
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how would we make
our plants cold-tolerant?

107
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Because, on average,
the temperature on Mars

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is a very uninviting
negative 60 degrees centigrade.

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The next question we should ask is,

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how do we make
our plants drought-tolerant?

111
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Considering that most of the water
that forms as frost

112
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evaporates more quickly
than I can say the word "evaporate."

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Well, it turns out
we've already done things like this.

114
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By borrowing genes
for anti-freeze protein from fish

115
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and genes for drought tolerance
from other plants like rice

116
00:06:23,600 --> 00:06:26,296
and then stitching them
into the plants that need them,

117
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we now have plants that can tolerate
most droughts and freezes.

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They're known on Earth as GMOs,

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or genetically modified organisms,

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and we rely on them to feed
all the mouths of human civilization.

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Nature does stuff like this already,

122
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without our help.

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We have simply found
more precise ways to do it.

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So why would we want to change
the genetic makeup of plants for space?

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Well, to not do so
would mean needing to engineer

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endless acres of land
on an entirely new planet

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00:07:01,760 --> 00:07:05,256
by releasing trillions of gallons
of atmospheric gasses

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00:07:05,280 --> 00:07:08,320
and then constructing
a giant glass dome to contain it all.

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00:07:09,080 --> 00:07:11,136
It's an unrealistic engineering enterprise

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that quickly becomes
a high-cost cargo transport mission.

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One of the best ways to ensure

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that we will have the food supplies
and the air that we need

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is to bring with us organisms
that have been engineered

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to adapt to new and harsh environments.

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In essence, using engineered organisms
to help us terraform a planet

136
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both in the short and long term.

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These organisms can then also
be engineered to make medicine or fuel.

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So we can use synthetic biology
to bring highly engineered plants with us,

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but what else can we do?

140
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Well, I mentioned earlier
that we, as a species,

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were evolved uniquely for planet Earth.

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That fact has not changed much
in the last five minutes

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that you were sitting here
and I was standing there.

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And so, if we were to dump
any of us on Mars right this minute,

145
00:08:01,800 --> 00:08:05,296
even given ample food, water, air

146
00:08:05,320 --> 00:08:06,536
and a suit,

147
00:08:06,560 --> 00:08:09,936
we are likely to experience
very unpleasant health problems

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00:08:09,960 --> 00:08:13,256
from the amount of ionizing radiation
that bombards the surface

149
00:08:13,280 --> 00:08:17,120
of planets like Mars that have little
or nonexistent atmosphere.

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00:08:18,880 --> 00:08:20,896
Unless we plan
to stay holed up underground

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00:08:20,920 --> 00:08:23,560
for the duration of our stay
on every new planet,

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we must find better ways
of protecting ourselves

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00:08:26,680 --> 00:08:29,336
without needing to resort
to wearing a suit of armor

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00:08:29,360 --> 00:08:31,816
that weighs something
equal to your own body weight,

155
00:08:31,840 --> 00:08:34,120
or needing to hide behind a wall of lead.

156
00:08:35,840 --> 00:08:38,440
So let us appeal
to nature for inspiration.

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Among the plethora of life here on Earth,

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there's a subset of organisms
known as extremophiles,

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or lovers of extreme living conditions,

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00:08:46,800 --> 00:08:49,256
if you'll remember
from high school biology.

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And among these organisms is a bacterium
by the name of Deinococcus radiodurans.

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It is known to be able to withstand cold,
dehydration, vacuum, acid,

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00:09:00,540 --> 00:09:02,740
and, most notably, radiation.

164
00:09:03,912 --> 00:09:06,634
While its radiation
tolerance mechanisms are known,

165
00:09:06,659 --> 00:09:09,058
we have yet to adapt
the relevant genes to mammals.

166
00:09:10,020 --> 00:09:12,636
To do so is not particularly easy.

167
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There are many facets
that go into its radiation tolerance,

168
00:09:15,500 --> 00:09:17,740
and it's not as simple
as transferring one gene.

169
00:09:18,460 --> 00:09:21,716
But given a little bit of human ingenuity

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00:09:21,740 --> 00:09:22,996
and a little bit of time,

171
00:09:23,020 --> 00:09:25,460
I think to do so is not very hard either.

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Even if we borrow just a fraction
of its ability to tolerate radiation,

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it would be infinitely better
than what we already have,

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which is just the melanin in our skin.

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Using the tools of synthetic biology,

176
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we can harness Deinococcus
radiodurans' ability

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to thrive under otherwise
very lethal doses of radiation.

178
00:09:50,260 --> 00:09:51,740
As difficult as it is to see,

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00:09:52,420 --> 00:09:54,740
homo sapiens, that is humans,

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evolves every day,

181
00:09:58,020 --> 00:09:59,940
and still continues to evolve.

182
00:10:00,860 --> 00:10:02,636
Thousands of years of human evolution

183
00:10:02,660 --> 00:10:05,636
has not only given us
humans like Tibetans,

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00:10:05,660 --> 00:10:08,236
who can thrive in low-oxygen conditions,

185
00:10:08,260 --> 00:10:13,196
but also Argentinians,
who can ingest and metabolize arsenic,

186
00:10:13,220 --> 00:10:16,020
the chemical element
that can kill the average human being.

187
00:10:16,860 --> 00:10:20,556
Every day, the human body evolves
by accidental mutations

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00:10:20,580 --> 00:10:23,436
that equally accidentally
allow certain humans

189
00:10:23,460 --> 00:10:25,700
to persevere in dismal situations.

190
00:10:26,660 --> 00:10:28,540
But, and this is a big but,

191
00:10:29,980 --> 00:10:34,156
such evolution requires two things
that we may not always have,

192
00:10:34,180 --> 00:10:35,620
or be able to afford,

193
00:10:36,620 --> 00:10:38,860
and they are death and time.

194
00:10:40,060 --> 00:10:43,076
In our species' struggle
to find our place in the universe,

195
00:10:43,100 --> 00:10:45,556
we may not always have the time necessary

196
00:10:45,580 --> 00:10:48,116
for the natural evolution
of extra functions

197
00:10:48,140 --> 00:10:50,140
for survival on non-Earth planets.

198
00:10:52,360 --> 00:10:56,856
We're living in what E.O. Wilson
has termed the age of gene circumvention,

199
00:10:56,880 --> 00:11:02,256
during which we remedy our genetic defects
like cystic fibrosis or muscular dystrophy

200
00:11:02,280 --> 00:11:04,880
with temporary external supplements.

201
00:11:05,960 --> 00:11:07,496
But with every passing day,

202
00:11:07,520 --> 00:11:10,696
we approach the age
of volitional evolution,

203
00:11:10,720 --> 00:11:12,696
a time during which we as a species

204
00:11:12,720 --> 00:11:17,600
will have the capacity to decide
for ourselves our own genetic destiny.

205
00:11:18,920 --> 00:11:21,256
Augmenting the human body
with new abilities

206
00:11:21,280 --> 00:11:23,360
is no longer a question of how,

207
00:11:24,120 --> 00:11:25,320
but of when.

208
00:11:26,440 --> 00:11:27,696
Using synthetic biology

209
00:11:27,720 --> 00:11:30,816
to change the genetic makeup
of any living organisms,

210
00:11:30,840 --> 00:11:32,056
especially our own,

211
00:11:32,080 --> 00:11:34,400
is not without its moral
and ethical quandaries.

212
00:11:35,480 --> 00:11:38,000
Will engineering ourselves
make us less human?

213
00:11:39,160 --> 00:11:41,416
But then again, what is humanity

214
00:11:41,440 --> 00:11:43,960
but star stuff
that happens to be conscious?

215
00:11:45,400 --> 00:11:47,840
Where should human genius direct itself?

216
00:11:48,840 --> 00:11:52,760
Surely it is a bit of a waste
to sit back and marvel at it.

217
00:11:54,000 --> 00:11:55,336
How do we use our knowledge

218
00:11:55,360 --> 00:11:58,616
to protect ourselves
from the external dangers

219
00:11:58,640 --> 00:12:01,280
and then protect ourselves from ourselves?

220
00:12:03,000 --> 00:12:04,416
I pose these questions

221
00:12:04,440 --> 00:12:06,616
not to engender the fear of science

222
00:12:06,640 --> 00:12:09,016
but to bring to light
the many possibilities

223
00:12:09,040 --> 00:12:12,440
that science has afforded
and continues to afford us.

224
00:12:13,360 --> 00:12:17,336
We must coalesce as humans
to discuss and embrace the solutions

225
00:12:17,360 --> 00:12:18,560
not only with caution

226
00:12:19,240 --> 00:12:21,200
but also with courage.

227
00:12:22,800 --> 00:12:26,400
Mars is a destination,

228
00:12:27,040 --> 00:12:28,640
but it will not be our last.

229
00:12:29,800 --> 00:12:32,656
Our true final frontier
is the line we must cross

230
00:12:32,680 --> 00:12:37,400
in deciding what we can and should make
of our species' improbable intelligence.

231
00:12:38,680 --> 00:12:42,920
Space is cold, brutal and unforgiving.

232
00:12:44,420 --> 00:12:46,836
Our path to the stars
will be rife with trials

233
00:12:46,860 --> 00:12:49,836
that will bring us to question
not only who we are

234
00:12:49,860 --> 00:12:51,620
but where we will be going.

235
00:12:52,460 --> 00:12:56,036
The answers will lie in our choice
to use or abandon the technology

236
00:12:56,060 --> 00:12:58,156
that we have gleaned from life itself,

237
00:12:58,180 --> 00:13:01,912
and it will define us for the remainder
of our term in this universe.

238
00:13:01,937 --> 00:13:03,153
Thank you.

239
00:13:03,178 --> 00:13:04,647
(Applause)