0:00:00.000,0:00:02.000
Thank you.

0:00:02.000,0:00:04.000
It's a real pleasure to be here.

0:00:04.000,0:00:06.000
I last did a TEDTalk

0:00:06.000,0:00:10.000
I think about seven years ago or so.

0:00:10.000,0:00:13.000
I talked about spaghetti sauce.

0:00:13.000,0:00:16.000
And so many people, I guess, watch those videos.

0:00:16.000,0:00:18.000
People have been coming up to me ever since

0:00:18.000,0:00:20.000
to ask me questions about spaghetti sauce,

0:00:20.000,0:00:23.000
which is a wonderful thing in the short term --

0:00:23.000,0:00:25.000
(Laughter)

0:00:25.000,0:00:27.000
but it's proven to be less than ideal

0:00:27.000,0:00:29.000
over seven years.

0:00:29.000,0:00:31.000
And so I though I would come

0:00:31.000,0:00:34.000
and try and put spaghetti sauce behind me.

0:00:34.000,0:00:36.000
(Laughter)

0:00:36.000,0:00:39.000
The theme of this morning's session is Things We Make.

0:00:39.000,0:00:41.000
And so I thought I would tell a story

0:00:41.000,0:00:43.000
about someone

0:00:43.000,0:00:45.000
who made one of the most precious objects

0:00:45.000,0:00:47.000
of his era.

0:00:47.000,0:00:50.000
And the man's name is Carl Norden.

0:00:50.000,0:00:52.000
Carl Norden was born in 1880.

0:00:52.000,0:00:54.000
And he was Swiss.

0:00:54.000,0:00:56.000
And of course, the Swiss can be divided

0:00:56.000,0:00:58.000
into two general categories:

0:00:58.000,0:01:00.000
those who make small, exquisite,

0:01:00.000,0:01:02.000
expensive objects

0:01:02.000,0:01:04.000
and those who handle the money

0:01:04.000,0:01:07.000
of those who buy small, exquisite,

0:01:07.000,0:01:09.000
expensive objects.

0:01:09.000,0:01:12.000
And Carl Norden is very firmly in the former camp.

0:01:12.000,0:01:14.000
He's an engineer.

0:01:14.000,0:01:17.000
He goes to the Federal Polytech in Zurich.

0:01:17.000,0:01:20.000
In fact, one of his classmates is a young man named Lenin

0:01:20.000,0:01:22.000
who would go on

0:01:22.000,0:01:26.000
to break small, expensive, exquisite objects.

0:01:26.000,0:01:29.000
And he's a Swiss engineer, Carl.

0:01:29.000,0:01:32.000
And I mean that in its fullest sense of the word.

0:01:32.000,0:01:34.000
He wears three-piece suits;

0:01:34.000,0:01:39.000
and he has a very, very small, important mustache;

0:01:39.000,0:01:41.000
and he is domineering

0:01:41.000,0:01:43.000
and narcissistic

0:01:43.000,0:01:45.000
and driven

0:01:45.000,0:01:47.000
and has an extraordinary ego;

0:01:47.000,0:01:50.000
and he works 16-hour days;

0:01:50.000,0:01:53.000
and he has very strong feelings about alternating current;

0:01:53.000,0:01:57.000
and he feels like a suntan is a sign of moral weakness;

0:01:57.000,0:01:59.000
and he drinks lots of coffee;

0:01:59.000,0:02:01.000
and he does his best work

0:02:01.000,0:02:03.000
sitting in his mother's kitchen in Zurich for hours

0:02:03.000,0:02:05.000
in complete silence

0:02:05.000,0:02:07.000
with nothing but a slide rule.

0:02:07.000,0:02:09.000
In any case,

0:02:09.000,0:02:12.000
Carl Norden emigrates to the United States

0:02:12.000,0:02:14.000
just before the First World War

0:02:14.000,0:02:16.000
and sets up shop on Lafayette Street

0:02:16.000,0:02:18.000
in downtown Manhattan.

0:02:18.000,0:02:20.000
And he becomes obsessed with the question

0:02:20.000,0:02:23.000
of how to drop bombs from an airplane.

0:02:23.000,0:02:25.000
Now if you think about it,

0:02:25.000,0:02:28.000
in the age before GPS and radar,

0:02:28.000,0:02:30.000
that was obviously a really difficult problem.

0:02:30.000,0:02:32.000
It's a complicated physics problem.

0:02:32.000,0:02:35.000
You've got a plane that's thousands of feet up in the air,

0:02:35.000,0:02:37.000
going at hundreds of miles an hour,

0:02:37.000,0:02:40.000
and you're trying to drop an object, a bomb,

0:02:40.000,0:02:42.000
towards some stationary target

0:02:42.000,0:02:45.000
in the face of all kinds of winds and cloud cover

0:02:45.000,0:02:47.000
and all kinds of other impediments.

0:02:47.000,0:02:49.000
And all sorts of people,

0:02:49.000,0:02:51.000
moving up to the First World War and between the wars,

0:02:51.000,0:02:53.000
tried to solve this problem,

0:02:53.000,0:02:55.000
and nearly everybody came up short.

0:02:55.000,0:02:57.000
The bombsights that were available

0:02:57.000,0:02:59.000
were incredibly crude.

0:02:59.000,0:03:02.000
But Carl Norden is really the one who cracks the code.

0:03:02.000,0:03:05.000
And he comes up with this incredibly complicated device.

0:03:05.000,0:03:07.000
It weighs about 50 lbs.

0:03:07.000,0:03:11.000
It's called the Norden Mark 15 bombsight.

0:03:11.000,0:03:13.000
And it has all kinds of levers and ball-bearings

0:03:13.000,0:03:16.000
and gadgets and gauges.

0:03:16.000,0:03:19.000
And he makes this complicated thing.

0:03:19.000,0:03:21.000
And what he allows people to do

0:03:21.000,0:03:25.000
is he makes the bombardier take this particular object,

0:03:25.000,0:03:27.000
visually sight the target,

0:03:27.000,0:03:31.000
because they're in the Plexiglas cone of the bomber,

0:03:31.000,0:03:34.000
and then they plug in the altitude of the plane,

0:03:34.000,0:03:37.000
the speed of the plane, the speed of the wind

0:03:37.000,0:03:39.000
and the coordinates

0:03:39.000,0:03:41.000
of the target.

0:03:41.000,0:03:45.000
And the bombsight will tell him when to drop the bomb.

0:03:45.000,0:03:48.000
And as Norden famously says,

0:03:48.000,0:03:50.000
"Before that bombsight came along,

0:03:50.000,0:03:52.000
bombs would routinely miss their target

0:03:52.000,0:03:54.000
by a mile or more."

0:03:54.000,0:03:57.000
But he said, with the Mark 15 Norden bombsight,

0:03:57.000,0:03:59.000
he could drop a bomb into a pickle barrel

0:03:59.000,0:04:01.000
at 20,000 ft.

0:04:01.000,0:04:03.000
Now I cannot tell you

0:04:03.000,0:04:05.000
how incredibly excited

0:04:05.000,0:04:07.000
the U.S. military was

0:04:07.000,0:04:10.000
by the news of the Norden bombsight.

0:04:10.000,0:04:12.000
It was like manna from heaven.

0:04:12.000,0:04:14.000
Here was an army

0:04:14.000,0:04:16.000
that had just had experience in the First World War,

0:04:16.000,0:04:18.000
where millions of men

0:04:18.000,0:04:20.000
fought each other in the trenches,

0:04:20.000,0:04:22.000
getting nowhere, making no progress,

0:04:22.000,0:04:26.000
and here someone had come up with a device

0:04:26.000,0:04:28.000
that allowed them to fly up in the skies

0:04:28.000,0:04:30.000
high above enemy territory

0:04:30.000,0:04:32.000
and destroy whatever they wanted

0:04:32.000,0:04:34.000
with pinpoint accuracy.

0:04:34.000,0:04:36.000
And the U.S. military

0:04:36.000,0:04:38.000
spends 1.5 billion dollars --

0:04:38.000,0:04:41.000
billion dollars in 1940 dollars --

0:04:41.000,0:04:43.000
developing the Norden bombsight.

0:04:43.000,0:04:46.000
And to put that in perspective,

0:04:46.000,0:04:48.000
the total cost of the Manhattan project

0:04:48.000,0:04:50.000
was three billion dollars.

0:04:50.000,0:04:53.000
Half as much money was spent on this Norden bombsight

0:04:53.000,0:04:57.000
as was spent on the most famous military-industrial project

0:04:57.000,0:04:59.000
of the modern era.

0:04:59.000,0:05:02.000
And there were people, strategists, within the U.S. military

0:05:02.000,0:05:04.000
who genuinely thought that this single device

0:05:04.000,0:05:06.000
was going to spell the difference

0:05:06.000,0:05:08.000
between defeat and victory

0:05:08.000,0:05:10.000
when it came to the battle against the Nazis

0:05:10.000,0:05:12.000
and against the Japanese.

0:05:12.000,0:05:14.000
And for Norden as well,

0:05:14.000,0:05:17.000
this device had incredible moral importance,

0:05:17.000,0:05:19.000
because Norden was a committed Christian.

0:05:19.000,0:05:21.000
In fact, he would always get upset

0:05:21.000,0:05:24.000
when people referred to the bombsight as his invention,

0:05:24.000,0:05:26.000
because in his eyes,

0:05:26.000,0:05:28.000
only God could invent things.

0:05:28.000,0:05:30.000
He was simple the instrument of God's will.

0:05:30.000,0:05:32.000
And what was God's will?

0:05:32.000,0:05:35.000
Well God's will was that the amount of suffering in any kind of war

0:05:35.000,0:05:38.000
be reduced to as small an amount as possible.

0:05:38.000,0:05:40.000
And what did the Norden bombsight do?

0:05:40.000,0:05:42.000
Well it allowed you to do that.

0:05:42.000,0:05:44.000
It allowed you to bomb only those things

0:05:44.000,0:05:48.000
that you absolutely needed and wanted to bomb.

0:05:48.000,0:05:51.000
So in the years leading up to the Second World War,

0:05:51.000,0:05:54.000
the U.S. military buys 90,000

0:05:54.000,0:05:56.000
of these Norden bombsights

0:05:56.000,0:05:58.000
at a cost of $14,000 each --

0:05:58.000,0:06:01.000
again, in 1940 dollars, that's a lot of money.

0:06:01.000,0:06:04.000
And they trained 50,000 bombardiers on how to use them --

0:06:04.000,0:06:08.000
long extensive, months-long training sessions --

0:06:08.000,0:06:10.000
because these things are essentially analog computers;

0:06:10.000,0:06:12.000
they're not easy to use.

0:06:12.000,0:06:15.000
And they make everyone of those bombardiers take an oath,

0:06:15.000,0:06:18.000
to swear that if they're ever captured,

0:06:18.000,0:06:20.000
they will not divulge a single detail

0:06:20.000,0:06:22.000
of this particular device to the enemy,

0:06:22.000,0:06:25.000
because it's imperative the enemy not get their hands

0:06:25.000,0:06:27.000
on this absolutely essential piece of technology.

0:06:27.000,0:06:30.000
And whenever the Norden bombsight is taken onto a plane,

0:06:30.000,0:06:33.000
it's escorted there by a series of armed guards.

0:06:33.000,0:06:36.000
And it's carried in a box with a canvas shroud over it.

0:06:36.000,0:06:39.000
And the box is handcuffed to one of the guards.

0:06:39.000,0:06:41.000
It's never allowed to be photographed.

0:06:41.000,0:06:44.000
And there's a little incendiary device inside of it,

0:06:44.000,0:06:47.000
so that, if the plane ever crashes, it will be destroyed

0:06:47.000,0:06:50.000
and there's no way the enemy can ever get their hands on it.

0:06:50.000,0:06:52.000
The Norden bombsight

0:06:52.000,0:06:55.000
is the Holy Grail.

0:06:55.000,0:06:58.000
So what happens during the Second World War?

0:06:58.000,0:07:01.000
Well, it turns out it's not the Holy Grail.

0:07:01.000,0:07:03.000
In practice, the Norden bombsight

0:07:03.000,0:07:06.000
can drop a bomb into a pickle barrel at 20,000 ft.,

0:07:06.000,0:07:08.000
but that's under perfect conditions.

0:07:08.000,0:07:10.000
And of course, in wartime,

0:07:10.000,0:07:12.000
conditions aren't perfect.

0:07:12.000,0:07:15.000
First of all, it's really hard to use -- really hard to use.

0:07:15.000,0:07:17.000
And not all of the people

0:07:17.000,0:07:19.000
who are of those 50,000 men who are bombardiers

0:07:19.000,0:07:23.000
have the ability to properly program an analog computer.

0:07:23.000,0:07:25.000
Secondly, it breaks down a lot.

0:07:25.000,0:07:27.000
It's full of all kinds of gyroscopes and pulleys

0:07:27.000,0:07:29.000
and gadgets and ball-bearings,

0:07:29.000,0:07:31.000
and they don't work as well as they ought to

0:07:31.000,0:07:33.000
in the heat of battle.

0:07:33.000,0:07:36.000
Thirdly, when Norden was making his calculations,

0:07:36.000,0:07:38.000
he assumed that a plane would be flying

0:07:38.000,0:07:41.000
at a relatively slow speed at low altitudes.

0:07:41.000,0:07:43.000
Well in a real war, you can't do that;

0:07:43.000,0:07:45.000
you'll get shot down.

0:07:45.000,0:07:48.000
So they started flying them at high altitudes at incredibly high speeds.

0:07:48.000,0:07:50.000
And the Norden bombsight doesn't work as well

0:07:50.000,0:07:52.000
under those conditions.

0:07:52.000,0:07:54.000
But most of all,

0:07:54.000,0:07:56.000
the Norden bombsight required the bombardier

0:07:56.000,0:07:59.000
to make visual contact with the target.

0:07:59.000,0:08:01.000
But of course, what happens in real life?

0:08:01.000,0:08:04.000
There are clouds, right.

0:08:04.000,0:08:07.000
It needs cloudless sky to be really accurate.

0:08:07.000,0:08:09.000
Well how many cloudless skies

0:08:09.000,0:08:11.000
do you think there were above Central Europe

0:08:11.000,0:08:14.000
between 1940 and 1945?

0:08:14.000,0:08:16.000
Not a lot.

0:08:16.000,0:08:18.000
And then to give you a sense

0:08:18.000,0:08:20.000
of just how inaccurate the Norden bombsight was,

0:08:20.000,0:08:22.000
there was a famous case in 1944

0:08:22.000,0:08:26.000
where the Allies bombed a chemical plant in Leuna, Germany.

0:08:26.000,0:08:28.000
And the chemical plant comprised

0:08:28.000,0:08:30.000
757 acres.

0:08:30.000,0:08:33.000
And over the course of 22 bombing missions,

0:08:33.000,0:08:38.000
the Allies dropped 85,000 bombs

0:08:38.000,0:08:42.000
on this 757 acre chemical plant,

0:08:42.000,0:08:45.000
using the Norden bombsight.

0:08:45.000,0:08:47.000
Well what percentage of those bombs

0:08:47.000,0:08:49.000
do you think actually landed

0:08:49.000,0:08:52.000
inside the 700-acre perimeter of the plant?

0:08:52.000,0:08:55.000
10 percent. 10 percent.

0:08:55.000,0:08:57.000
And of those 10 percent that landed,

0:08:57.000,0:09:00.000
16 percent didn't even go off; they were duds.

0:09:00.000,0:09:02.000
The Leuna chemical plant,

0:09:02.000,0:09:05.000
after one of the most extensive bombings in the history of the war,

0:09:05.000,0:09:08.000
was up and running within weeks.

0:09:08.000,0:09:10.000
And by the way, all those precautions

0:09:10.000,0:09:13.000
to keep the Norden bombsight out of the hands of the Nazis?

0:09:13.000,0:09:15.000
Well it turns out

0:09:15.000,0:09:17.000
that Carl Norden, as a proper Swiss,

0:09:17.000,0:09:20.000
was very enamored of German engineers.

0:09:20.000,0:09:22.000
So in the 1930s, he hired a whole bunch of them,

0:09:22.000,0:09:24.000
including a man named Hermann Long

0:09:24.000,0:09:26.000
who, in 1938,

0:09:26.000,0:09:29.000
gave a complete set of the plans for the Norden bombsight to the Nazis.

0:09:29.000,0:09:32.000
So they had their own Norden bombsight throughout the entire war --

0:09:32.000,0:09:35.000
which also, by the way, didn't work very well.

0:09:35.000,0:09:37.000
(Laughter)

0:09:37.000,0:09:40.000
So why do we talk about the Norden bombsight?

0:09:40.000,0:09:42.000
Well because we live in an age

0:09:42.000,0:09:44.000
where there are lots and lots

0:09:44.000,0:09:46.000
of Norden bombsights.

0:09:46.000,0:09:48.000
We live in a time where there are all kinds

0:09:48.000,0:09:50.000
of really, really smart people

0:09:50.000,0:09:52.000
running around, saying that they've invented gadgets

0:09:52.000,0:09:54.000
that will forever change our world.

0:09:54.000,0:09:57.000
They've invented websites that will allow people to be free.

0:09:57.000,0:10:01.000
They've invented some kind of this thing, or this thing, or this thing

0:10:01.000,0:10:04.000
that will make our world forever better.

0:10:04.000,0:10:06.000
If you go into the military,

0:10:06.000,0:10:08.000
you'll find lots of Carl Nordens as well.

0:10:08.000,0:10:10.000
If you go to the Pentagon, they will say,

0:10:10.000,0:10:12.000
"You know what, now we really can

0:10:12.000,0:10:14.000
put a bomb inside a pickle barrel

0:10:14.000,0:10:16.000
at 20,000 ft."

0:10:16.000,0:10:19.000
And you know what, it's true; they actually can do that now.

0:10:19.000,0:10:21.000
But we need to be very clear

0:10:21.000,0:10:24.000
about how little that means.

0:10:24.000,0:10:27.000
In the Iraq War, at the beginning of the first Iraq War,

0:10:27.000,0:10:29.000
the U.S. military, the air force,

0:10:29.000,0:10:32.000
sent two squadrons of F-15E Fighter Eagles

0:10:32.000,0:10:34.000
to the Iraqi desert

0:10:34.000,0:10:36.000
equipped with these five million dollar cameras

0:10:36.000,0:10:39.000
that allowed them to see the entire desert floor.

0:10:39.000,0:10:42.000
And their mission was to find and to destroy --

0:10:42.000,0:10:44.000
remember the Scud missile launchers,

0:10:44.000,0:10:46.000
those surface-to-air missiles

0:10:46.000,0:10:48.000
that the Iraqis were launching at the Israelis?

0:10:48.000,0:10:50.000
The mission of the two squadrons

0:10:50.000,0:10:53.000
was to get rid of all the Scud missile launchers.

0:10:53.000,0:10:55.000
And so they flew missions day and night,

0:10:55.000,0:10:57.000
and they dropped thousands of bombs,

0:10:57.000,0:11:00.000
and they fired thousands of missiles

0:11:00.000,0:11:03.000
in an attempt to get rid of this particular scourge.

0:11:03.000,0:11:05.000
And after the war was over, there was an audit done --

0:11:05.000,0:11:07.000
as the army always does, the air force always does --

0:11:07.000,0:11:09.000
and they asked the question:

0:11:09.000,0:11:11.000
how many Scuds did we actually destroy?

0:11:11.000,0:11:13.000
You know what the answer was?

0:11:13.000,0:11:15.000
Zero, not a single one.

0:11:15.000,0:11:17.000
Now why is that?

0:11:17.000,0:11:19.000
Is it because their weapons weren't accurate?

0:11:19.000,0:11:22.000
Oh no, they were brilliantly accurate.

0:11:22.000,0:11:24.000
They could have destroyed this little thing right here

0:11:24.000,0:11:26.000
from 25,000 ft.

0:11:26.000,0:11:30.000
The issue was they didn't know where the Scud launchers were.

0:11:30.000,0:11:33.000
The problem with bombs and pickle barrels

0:11:33.000,0:11:35.000
is not getting the bomb inside the pickle barrel,

0:11:35.000,0:11:38.000
it's knowing how to find the pickle barrel.

0:11:38.000,0:11:40.000
That's always been the harder problem

0:11:40.000,0:11:42.000
when it comes to fighting wars.

0:11:42.000,0:11:45.000
Or take the battle in Afghanistan.

0:11:45.000,0:11:47.000
What is the signature weapon

0:11:47.000,0:11:49.000
of the CIA's war in Northwest Pakistan?

0:11:49.000,0:11:52.000
It's the drone. What is the drone?

0:11:52.000,0:11:56.000
Well it is the grandson of the Norden Mark 15 bombsight.

0:11:56.000,0:12:00.000
It is this weapon of devastating accuracy and precision.

0:12:00.000,0:12:02.000
And over the course of the last six years

0:12:02.000,0:12:05.000
in Northwest Pakistan,

0:12:05.000,0:12:08.000
the CIA has flown hundreds of drone missiles,

0:12:08.000,0:12:10.000
and it's used those drones

0:12:10.000,0:12:12.000
to kill 2,000 suspected

0:12:12.000,0:12:16.000
Pakistani and Taliban militants.

0:12:16.000,0:12:19.000
Now what is the accuracy of those drones?

0:12:19.000,0:12:21.000
Well it's extraordinary.

0:12:21.000,0:12:24.000
We think we're now at 95 percent accuracy

0:12:24.000,0:12:26.000
when it comes to drone strikes.

0:12:26.000,0:12:29.000
95 percent of the people we kill need to be killed, right?

0:12:29.000,0:12:31.000
That is one of the most extraordinary records

0:12:31.000,0:12:33.000
in the history of modern warfare.

0:12:33.000,0:12:35.000
But do you know what the crucial thing is?

0:12:35.000,0:12:37.000
In that exact same period

0:12:37.000,0:12:39.000
that we've been using these drones

0:12:39.000,0:12:41.000
with devastating accuracy,

0:12:41.000,0:12:44.000
the number of attacks, of suicide attacks and terrorist attacks,

0:12:44.000,0:12:46.000
against American forces in Afghanistan

0:12:46.000,0:12:49.000
has increased tenfold.

0:12:49.000,0:12:51.000
As we have gotten more and more efficient

0:12:51.000,0:12:53.000
in killing them,

0:12:53.000,0:12:56.000
they have become angrier and angrier

0:12:56.000,0:12:59.000
and more and more motivated to kill us.

0:12:59.000,0:13:02.000
I have not described to you a success story.

0:13:02.000,0:13:04.000
I've described to you

0:13:04.000,0:13:06.000
the opposite of a success story.

0:13:06.000,0:13:08.000
And this is the problem

0:13:08.000,0:13:10.000
with our infatuation with the things we make.

0:13:10.000,0:13:13.000
We think the things we make can solve our problems,

0:13:13.000,0:13:16.000
but our problems are much more complex than that.

0:13:16.000,0:13:19.000
The issue isn't the accuracy of the bombs you have,

0:13:19.000,0:13:21.000
it's how you use the bombs you have,

0:13:21.000,0:13:23.000
and more importantly,

0:13:23.000,0:13:26.000
whether you ought to use bombs at all.

0:13:27.000,0:13:29.000
There's a postscript

0:13:29.000,0:13:31.000
to the Norden story

0:13:31.000,0:13:34.000
of Carl Norden and his fabulous bombsight.

0:13:34.000,0:13:37.000
And that is, on August 6th, 1945,

0:13:37.000,0:13:40.000
a B-29 bomber called the Enola Gay

0:13:40.000,0:13:42.000
flew over Japan

0:13:42.000,0:13:44.000
and, using a Norden bombsight,

0:13:44.000,0:13:47.000
dropped a very large thermonuclear device

0:13:47.000,0:13:50.000
on the city of Hiroshima.

0:13:50.000,0:13:53.000
And as was typical with the Norden bombsight,

0:13:53.000,0:13:56.000
the bomb actually missed its target by 800 ft.

0:13:56.000,0:13:59.000
But of course, it didn't matter.

0:13:59.000,0:14:01.000
And that's the greatest irony of all

0:14:01.000,0:14:04.000
when it comes to the Norden bombsight.

0:14:04.000,0:14:08.000
the air force's 1.5 billion dollar bombsight

0:14:08.000,0:14:12.000
was used to drop its three billion dollar bomb,

0:14:12.000,0:14:15.000
which didn't need a bombsight at all.

0:14:15.000,0:14:17.000
Meanwhile, back in New York,

0:14:17.000,0:14:19.000
no one told Carl Norden

0:14:19.000,0:14:22.000
that his bombsight was used over Hiroshima.

0:14:22.000,0:14:24.000
He was a committed Christian.

0:14:24.000,0:14:26.000
He thought he had designed something

0:14:26.000,0:14:29.000
that would reduce the toll of suffering in war.

0:14:29.000,0:14:32.000
It would have broken his heart.

0:14:32.000,0:14:39.000
(Applause)