[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:00.51,0:00:04.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'd like to tell you about a legal case that I worked on
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.84,0:00:08.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,involving a man named Steve Titus.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:08.40,0:00:11.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Titus was a restaurant manager.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:11.43,0:00:15.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He was 31 years old, he lived in Seattle, Washington,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:15.52,0:00:17.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he was engaged to Gretchen,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.42,0:00:20.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about to be married, she was the love of his life.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:20.37,0:00:22.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And one night, the couple went out
Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.65,0:00:25.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for a romantic restaurant meal.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:25.66,0:00:27.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were on their way home,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.30,0:00:30.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were pulled over by a police officer.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.25,0:00:33.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see, Titus' car sort of resembled
Dialogue: 0,0:00:33.57,0:00:37.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a car that was driven earlier in the evening
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.46,0:00:40.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by a man who raped a female hitchhiker,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:40.86,0:00:44.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Titus kind of resembled that rapist.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.46,0:00:47.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the police took a picture of Titus,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:47.04,0:00:49.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they put it in a photo lineup,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.80,0:00:51.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they later showed it to the victim,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:51.96,0:00:54.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and she pointed to Titus' photo.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:54.12,0:00:57.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,She said, "That one's the closest."
Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.74,0:01:01.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The police and the prosecution proceeded with a trial,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:01.63,0:01:04.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and when Steve Titus was put on trial for rape,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:04.97,0:01:07.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the rape victim got on the stand
Dialogue: 0,0:01:07.07,0:01:11.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and said, "I'm absolutely positive that's the man."
Dialogue: 0,0:01:11.41,0:01:14.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Titus was convicted.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.34,0:01:16.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He proclaimed his innocence,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:16.31,0:01:18.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,his family screamed at the jury,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.89,0:01:21.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,his fiancée collapsed on the floor sobbing,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:21.76,0:01:25.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Titus is taken away to jail.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.16,0:01:28.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what would you do at this point?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:28.62,0:01:30.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What would you do?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:30.25,0:01:34.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, Titus lost complete faith in the legal system,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:34.02,0:01:36.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and yet he got an idea.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:36.05,0:01:38.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He called up the local newspaper,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.48,0:01:41.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he got the interest of an investigative journalist,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.87,0:01:46.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that journalist actually found the real rapist,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:46.61,0:01:49.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a man who ultimately confessed to this rape,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:49.96,0:01:53.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a man who was thought to have committed 50 rapes
Dialogue: 0,0:01:53.25,0:01:54.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in that area,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:54.58,0:01:57.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and when this information was given to the judge,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:57.76,0:02:00.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the judge set Titus free.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:00.69,0:02:04.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And really, that's where this case should have ended.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:04.72,0:02:05.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It should have been over.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:05.85,0:02:08.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Titus should have thought of this as a horrible year,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:08.37,0:02:12.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a year of accusation and trial, but over.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.20,0:02:14.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It didn't end that way.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:14.25,0:02:16.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Titus was so bitter.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:16.93,0:02:19.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He'd lost his job. He couldn't get it back.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:19.51,0:02:21.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He lost his fiancée.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.35,0:02:24.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,She couldn't put up with his persistent anger.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:24.26,0:02:26.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He lost his entire savings,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:26.40,0:02:29.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so he decided to file a lawsuit
Dialogue: 0,0:02:29.26,0:02:31.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,against the police and others whom he felt
Dialogue: 0,0:02:31.54,0:02:33.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were responsible for his suffering.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:33.86,0:02:38.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's when I really started working on this case,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.57,0:02:40.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,trying to figure out
Dialogue: 0,0:02:40.54,0:02:42.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how did that victim go from
Dialogue: 0,0:02:42.61,0:02:44.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"That one's the closest"
Dialogue: 0,0:02:44.14,0:02:48.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to "I'm absolutely positive that's the guy."
Dialogue: 0,0:02:48.89,0:02:52.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, Titus was consumed with his civil case.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:52.17,0:02:55.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He spent every waking moment thinking about it,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:55.20,0:02:59.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and just days before he was to have his day in court,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:59.35,0:03:01.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he woke up in the morning,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:01.57,0:03:03.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,doubled over in pain,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:03.38,0:03:06.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and died of a stress-related heart attack.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:06.07,0:03:09.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He was 35 years old.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:09.26,0:03:14.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I was asked to work on Titus' case
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.07,0:03:16.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because I'm a psychological scientist.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:16.58,0:03:20.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I study memory. I've studied memory for decades.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:20.41,0:03:23.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if I meet somebody on an airplane --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.80,0:03:25.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this happened on the way over to Scotland --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:25.90,0:03:27.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if I meet somebody on an airplane,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:27.73,0:03:30.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we ask each other, "What do you do? What do you do?"
Dialogue: 0,0:03:30.77,0:03:32.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I say "I study memory,"
Dialogue: 0,0:03:32.22,0:03:35.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they usually want to tell me how they have trouble remembering names,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:35.60,0:03:38.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or they've got a relative who's got Alzheimer's
Dialogue: 0,0:03:38.42,0:03:40.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or some kind of memory problem,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:40.48,0:03:42.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but I have to tell them
Dialogue: 0,0:03:42.70,0:03:46.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I don't study when people forget.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.20,0:03:49.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I study the opposite: when they remember,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:49.20,0:03:51.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when they remember things that didn't happen
Dialogue: 0,0:03:51.96,0:03:53.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or remember things that were different
Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.92,0:03:55.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the way they really were.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:55.95,0:04:00.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I study false memories.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:00.68,0:04:04.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Unhappily, Steve Titus is not the only person
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.99,0:04:09.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to be convicted based on somebody's false memory.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:09.30,0:04:12.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In one project in the United States,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:12.60,0:04:14.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,information has been gathered
Dialogue: 0,0:04:14.86,0:04:18.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on 300 innocent people,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:18.79,0:04:22.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,300 defendants who were convicted of crimes they didn't do.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:22.68,0:04:27.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They spent 10, 20, 30 years in prison for these crimes,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:27.98,0:04:30.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and now DNA testing has proven
Dialogue: 0,0:04:30.41,0:04:33.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they are actually innocent.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:33.33,0:04:35.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when those cases have been analyzed,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.85,0:04:37.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,three quarters of them
Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.99,0:04:43.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are due to faulty memory, faulty eyewitness memory.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:43.60,0:04:44.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, why?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:44.86,0:04:48.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Like the jurors who convicted those innocent people
Dialogue: 0,0:04:48.31,0:04:50.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the jurors who convicted Titus,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:50.60,0:04:52.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,many people believe that memory
Dialogue: 0,0:04:52.84,0:04:54.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,works like a recording device.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:54.49,0:04:56.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You just record the information,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:56.74,0:04:59.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you call it up and play it back
Dialogue: 0,0:04:59.39,0:05:02.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when you want to answer questions or identify images.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:02.82,0:05:04.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But decades of work in psychology
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.98,0:05:08.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,has shown that this just isn't true.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:08.13,0:05:10.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our memories are constructive.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:10.56,0:05:12.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They're reconstructive.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.13,0:05:15.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Memory works a little bit more like a Wikipedia page:
Dialogue: 0,0:05:15.61,0:05:20.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can go in there and change it, but so can other people.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:20.73,0:05:25.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I first started studying this constructive memory process
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.98,0:05:28.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the 1970s.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:28.39,0:05:32.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I did my experiments that involved showing people
Dialogue: 0,0:05:32.81,0:05:35.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,simulated crimes and accidents
Dialogue: 0,0:05:35.32,0:05:38.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and asking them questions about what they remember.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.84,0:05:42.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In one study, we showed people a simulated accident
Dialogue: 0,0:05:42.78,0:05:44.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we asked people,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:44.05,0:05:46.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:46.92,0:05:48.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we asked other people,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:48.55,0:05:52.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:52.24,0:05:55.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if we asked the leading "smashed" question,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.24,0:05:58.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the witnesses told us the cars were going faster,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:58.53,0:06:02.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and moreover, that leading "smashed" question
Dialogue: 0,0:06:02.52,0:06:05.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,caused people to be more likely to tell us
Dialogue: 0,0:06:05.38,0:06:08.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they saw broken glass in the accident scene
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.45,0:06:12.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when there wasn't any broken glass at all.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:12.23,0:06:15.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In another study, we showed a simulated accident
Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.12,0:06:18.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where a car went through an intersection with a stop sign,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:18.78,0:06:23.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and if we asked a question that insinuated it was a yield sign,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:23.71,0:06:27.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,many witnesses told us they remember seeing a yield sign
Dialogue: 0,0:06:27.56,0:06:31.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at the intersection, not a stop sign.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:31.02,0:06:33.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you might be thinking, well, you know,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:33.21,0:06:34.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these are filmed events,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:34.53,0:06:36.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they are not particularly stressful.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:36.46,0:06:39.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Would the same kind of mistakes be made
Dialogue: 0,0:06:39.19,0:06:42.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a really stressful event?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:42.14,0:06:45.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In a study we published just a few months ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.23,0:06:47.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we have an answer to this question,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:47.54,0:06:50.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because what was unusual about this study
Dialogue: 0,0:06:50.30,0:06:55.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is we arranged for people to have a very stressful experience.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:55.93,0:06:58.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The subjects in this study
Dialogue: 0,0:06:58.16,0:07:00.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were members of the U.S. military
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.67,0:07:05.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who were undergoing a harrowing training exercise
Dialogue: 0,0:07:05.10,0:07:07.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to teach them what it's going to be like for them
Dialogue: 0,0:07:07.88,0:07:11.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if they are ever captured as prisoners of war.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:11.80,0:07:14.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as part of this training exercise,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.23,0:07:17.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these soldiers are interrogated in an aggressive,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.76,0:07:22.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hostile, physically abusive fashion for 30 minutes
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.84,0:07:25.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and later on they have to try to identify
Dialogue: 0,0:07:25.66,0:07:28.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the person who conducted that interrogation.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:28.68,0:07:32.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when we feed them suggestive information
Dialogue: 0,0:07:32.50,0:07:35.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that insinuates it's a different person,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:35.28,0:07:39.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,many of them misidentify their interrogator,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:39.32,0:07:43.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,often identifying someone who doesn't even remotely
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.16,0:07:46.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,resemble the real interrogator.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:46.26,0:07:48.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so what these studies are showing
Dialogue: 0,0:07:48.56,0:07:52.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that when you feed people misinformation
Dialogue: 0,0:07:52.42,0:07:55.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about some experience that they may have had,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.80,0:08:01.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can distort or contaminate or change their memory.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:01.46,0:08:03.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well out there in the real world,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:03.66,0:08:06.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,misinformation is everywhere.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:06.55,0:08:07.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We get misinformation
Dialogue: 0,0:08:07.91,0:08:10.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,not only if we're questioned in a leading way,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:10.82,0:08:13.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but if we talk to other witnesses
Dialogue: 0,0:08:13.27,0:08:16.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who might consciously or inadvertently feed us
Dialogue: 0,0:08:16.30,0:08:18.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some erroneous information,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:18.44,0:08:23.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or if we see media coverage about some event we might have experienced,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:23.17,0:08:25.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all of these provide the opportunity
Dialogue: 0,0:08:25.96,0:08:30.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for this kind of contamination of our memory.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:30.31,0:08:34.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the 1990s, we began to see
Dialogue: 0,0:08:34.10,0:08:38.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an even more extreme kind of memory problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.78,0:08:41.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some patients were going into therapy with one problem --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:41.88,0:08:44.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe they had depression, an eating disorder --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.79,0:08:47.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were coming out of therapy
Dialogue: 0,0:08:47.55,0:08:50.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a different problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.21,0:08:53.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Extreme memories for horrific brutalizations,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:53.91,0:08:55.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sometimes in satanic rituals,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:55.89,0:09:00.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sometimes involving really bizarre and unusual elements.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:00.59,0:09:03.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One woman came out of psychotherapy
Dialogue: 0,0:09:03.14,0:09:05.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,believing that she'd endured years
Dialogue: 0,0:09:05.57,0:09:09.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of ritualistic abuse, where she was forced into a pregnancy
Dialogue: 0,0:09:09.47,0:09:12.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that the baby was cut from her belly.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:12.04,0:09:14.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there were no physical scars
Dialogue: 0,0:09:14.40,0:09:16.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or any kind of physical evidence
Dialogue: 0,0:09:16.42,0:09:19.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that could have supported her story.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:19.30,0:09:22.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when I began looking into these cases,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:22.31,0:09:23.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I was wondering,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:23.76,0:09:26.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where do these bizarre memories come from?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:26.09,0:09:30.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what I found is that most of these situations
Dialogue: 0,0:09:30.48,0:09:35.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,involved some particular form of psychotherapy.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:35.97,0:09:37.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so I asked,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:37.57,0:09:40.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were some of the things going on in this psychotherapy --
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.96,0:09:43.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like the imagination exercises
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.84,0:09:45.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or dream interpretation,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:45.90,0:09:48.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or in some cases hypnosis,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:48.03,0:09:51.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or in some cases exposure to false information --
Dialogue: 0,0:09:51.85,0:09:54.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were these leading these patients
Dialogue: 0,0:09:54.63,0:09:57.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to develop these very bizarre,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.31,0:10:00.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,unlikely memories?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:00.24,0:10:02.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I designed some experiments
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.40,0:10:07.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to try to study the processes that were being used
Dialogue: 0,0:10:07.42,0:10:10.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in this psychotherapy so I could study
Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.50,0:10:14.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the development of these very rich false memories.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:14.05,0:10:16.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In one of the first studies we did,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:16.46,0:10:18.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we used suggestion,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:18.81,0:10:22.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a method inspired by the psychotherapy we saw in these cases,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:22.87,0:10:24.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we used this kind of suggestion
Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.98,0:10:26.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and planted a false memory
Dialogue: 0,0:10:26.84,0:10:29.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that when you were a kid, five or six years old,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:29.91,0:10:32.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you were lost in a shopping mall.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:32.16,0:10:34.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You were frightened. You were crying.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:34.66,0:10:37.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You were ultimately rescued by an elderly person
Dialogue: 0,0:10:37.18,0:10:39.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and reunited with the family.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:39.03,0:10:41.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we succeeded in planting this memory
Dialogue: 0,0:10:41.64,0:10:45.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the minds of about a quarter of our subjects.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.74,0:10:47.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you might be thinking, well,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:47.75,0:10:50.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's not particularly stressful.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.09,0:10:53.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But we and other investigators have planted
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.46,0:10:56.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,rich false memories of things that were
Dialogue: 0,0:10:56.22,0:10:59.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,much more unusual and much more stressful.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:59.14,0:11:01.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in a study done in Tennessee,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:01.68,0:11:04.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,researchers planted the false memory
Dialogue: 0,0:11:04.09,0:11:06.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that when you were a kid, you nearly drowned
Dialogue: 0,0:11:06.66,0:11:09.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and had to be rescued by a life guard.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:09.17,0:11:11.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in a study done in Canada,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:11.48,0:11:13.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,researchers planted the false memory
Dialogue: 0,0:11:13.100,0:11:15.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that when you were a kid,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:15.23,0:11:18.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something as awful as being attacked by a vicious animal
Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.96,0:11:20.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,happened to you,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:20.34,0:11:23.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,succeeding with about half of their subjects.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:23.76,0:11:26.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in a study done in Italy,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:26.11,0:11:28.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,researchers planted the false memory,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:28.77,0:11:33.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when you were a kid, you witnessed demonic possession.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:33.98,0:11:36.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I do want to add that it might seem
Dialogue: 0,0:11:36.19,0:11:39.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like we are traumatizing these experimental subjects
Dialogue: 0,0:11:39.93,0:11:41.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the name of science,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:41.53,0:11:46.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but our studies have gone through thorough evaluation
Dialogue: 0,0:11:46.17,0:11:48.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by research ethics boards
Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.14,0:11:50.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that have made the decision
Dialogue: 0,0:11:50.48,0:11:53.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the temporary discomfort that some
Dialogue: 0,0:11:53.56,0:11:56.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of these subjects might experience in these studies
Dialogue: 0,0:11:56.64,0:12:00.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is outweighed by the importance of this problem
Dialogue: 0,0:12:00.54,0:12:03.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for understanding memory processes
Dialogue: 0,0:12:03.65,0:12:06.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the abuse of memory that is going on
Dialogue: 0,0:12:06.99,0:12:10.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in some places in the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:10.29,0:12:13.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, to my surprise,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:13.32,0:12:16.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when I published this work and began to speak out
Dialogue: 0,0:12:16.75,0:12:20.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,against this particular brand of psychotherapy,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:20.65,0:12:24.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it created some pretty bad problems for me:
Dialogue: 0,0:12:24.63,0:12:29.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hostilities, primarily from the repressed memory therapists,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:29.53,0:12:31.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who felt under attack,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:31.21,0:12:34.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and by the patients whom they had influenced.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:34.73,0:12:37.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I had sometimes armed guards at speeches
Dialogue: 0,0:12:37.67,0:12:39.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that I was invited to give,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:39.58,0:12:43.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,people trying to drum up letter-writing campaigns to get me fired.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:43.79,0:12:45.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But probably the worst
Dialogue: 0,0:12:45.77,0:12:48.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was I suspected that a woman
Dialogue: 0,0:12:48.54,0:12:50.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was innocent of abuse
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.96,0:12:53.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that was being claimed by her grown daughter.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:53.80,0:12:57.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,She accused her mother of sexual abuse
Dialogue: 0,0:12:57.22,0:12:59.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,based on a repressed memory.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:59.08,0:13:01.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this accusing daughter had actually allowed her story
Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.96,0:13:05.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to be filmed and presented in public places.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:05.39,0:13:07.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I was suspicious of this story,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.90,0:13:10.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so I started to investigate,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:10.20,0:13:14.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and eventually found information that convinced me
Dialogue: 0,0:13:14.69,0:13:16.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that this mother was innocent.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:16.98,0:13:19.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I published an exposé on the case,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:19.94,0:13:23.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a little while later, the accusing daughter
Dialogue: 0,0:13:23.38,0:13:24.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,filed a lawsuit.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:24.90,0:13:27.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Even though I'd never mentioned her name,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.26,0:13:31.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,she sued me for defamation and invasion of privacy.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:31.62,0:13:34.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I went through nearly five years
Dialogue: 0,0:13:34.34,0:13:40.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of dealing with this messy, unpleasant litigation,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:40.89,0:13:44.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but finally, finally, it was over and I could really
Dialogue: 0,0:13:44.57,0:13:46.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,get back to my work.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:46.99,0:13:49.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the process, however, I became part
Dialogue: 0,0:13:49.48,0:13:52.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of a disturbing trend in America
Dialogue: 0,0:13:52.13,0:13:54.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where scientists are being sued
Dialogue: 0,0:13:54.24,0:13:58.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for simply speaking out on matters of great public controversy.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:58.84,0:14:02.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When I got back to my work, I asked this question:
Dialogue: 0,0:14:02.19,0:14:04.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if I plant a false memory in your mind,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.59,0:14:06.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,does it have repercussions?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:06.44,0:14:08.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Does it affect your later thoughts,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:08.40,0:14:10.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,your later behaviors?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:10.50,0:14:12.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our first study planted a false memory
Dialogue: 0,0:14:12.52,0:14:15.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you got sick as a child eating certain foods:
Dialogue: 0,0:14:15.85,0:14:18.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hard-boiled eggs, dill pickles, strawberry ice cream.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:18.85,0:14:22.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we found that once we planted this false memory,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:22.04,0:14:24.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,people didn't want to eat the foods as much
Dialogue: 0,0:14:24.49,0:14:26.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at an outdoor picnic.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:26.75,0:14:30.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The false memories aren't necessarily bad or unpleasant.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:30.62,0:14:32.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we planted a warm, fuzzy memory
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.98,0:14:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,involving a healthy food like asparagus,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:36.00,0:14:39.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we could get people to want to eat asparagus more.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:39.48,0:14:41.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so what these studies are showing
Dialogue: 0,0:14:41.85,0:14:43.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that you can plant false memories
Dialogue: 0,0:14:43.96,0:14:45.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they have repercussions
Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.38,0:14:50.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that affect behavior long after the memories take hold.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:50.46,0:14:52.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, along with this ability
Dialogue: 0,0:14:52.89,0:14:55.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to plant memories and control behavior
Dialogue: 0,0:14:55.81,0:14:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,obviously come some important ethical issues,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:59.99,0:15:03.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like, when should we use this mind technology?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:03.05,0:15:06.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And should we ever ban its use?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:06.73,0:15:09.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Therapists can't ethically plant false memories
Dialogue: 0,0:15:09.51,0:15:11.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the mind of their patients
Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.10,0:15:13.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,even if it would help the patient,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:13.66,0:15:15.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but there's nothing to stop a parent
Dialogue: 0,0:15:15.29,0:15:19.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from trying this out on their overweight or obese teenager.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:19.74,0:15:22.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when I suggested this publicly,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:22.34,0:15:25.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it created an outcry again.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:25.69,0:15:29.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"There she goes. She's advocating that parents lie to their children."
Dialogue: 0,0:15:29.72,0:15:31.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Hello, Santa Claus. (Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:15:31.96,0:15:41.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I mean, another way to think about this is,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:41.46,0:15:43.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which would you rather have,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.49,0:15:46.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a kid with obesity, diabetes, shortened lifespan,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:46.52,0:15:48.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all the things that go with it,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:48.06,0:15:51.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or a kid with one little extra bit of false memory?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.07,0:15:54.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I know what I would choose for a kid of mine.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:54.46,0:15:58.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But maybe my work has made me different from most people.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:58.44,0:16:00.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Most people cherish their memories,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:00.52,0:16:02.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,know that they represent their identity,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:02.67,0:16:04.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who they are, where they came from.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:04.70,0:16:07.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I appreciate that. I feel that way too.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:07.56,0:16:09.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But I know from my work
Dialogue: 0,0:16:09.76,0:16:14.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how much fiction is already in there.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:14.24,0:16:16.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If I've learned anything from these decades
Dialogue: 0,0:16:16.97,0:16:19.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of working on these problems, it's this:
Dialogue: 0,0:16:19.38,0:16:21.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just because somebody tells you something
Dialogue: 0,0:16:21.59,0:16:23.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they say it with confidence,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:23.17,0:16:25.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just because they say it with lots of detail,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:25.85,0:16:28.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just because they express emotion when they say it,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:28.61,0:16:31.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it doesn't mean that it really happened.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:31.81,0:16:35.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can't reliably distinguish true memories from false memories.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:35.68,0:16:39.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We need independent corroboration.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:39.22,0:16:42.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Such a discovery has made me more tolerant
Dialogue: 0,0:16:42.31,0:16:44.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the everyday memory mistakes
Dialogue: 0,0:16:44.45,0:16:47.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that my friends and family members make.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:47.37,0:16:51.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Such a discovery might have saved Steve Titus,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:51.90,0:16:55.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the man whose whole future was snatched away
Dialogue: 0,0:16:55.48,0:16:57.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by a false memory.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:57.71,0:17:00.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But meanwhile, we should all keep in mind,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:00.53,0:17:02.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we'd do well to,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:02.17,0:17:06.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that memory, like liberty,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:06.04,0:17:09.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is a fragile thing.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:09.73,0:17:12.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you. Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:12.67,0:17:15.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you. (Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:17:15.40,0:17:19.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thanks very much. (Applause)