[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:11.28,0:00:12.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Good evening.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.81,0:00:16.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here you see a little petri dish\Nthat we use in the lab
Dialogue: 0,0:00:16.51,0:00:19.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with a dry leaf, completely dry,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:19.54,0:00:21.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and on there, there are females.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.06,0:00:24.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why do I say females?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.01,0:00:28.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because that's their way of life:\NThey live and evolve without males;
Dialogue: 0,0:00:28.42,0:00:30.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they got rid of males.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.60,0:00:32.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And also, they are dry.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:32.48,0:00:35.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They can dry up,\Nand we can wait for years,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:35.59,0:00:38.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,put them in the freezer,\Nand get them back.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:38.50,0:00:42.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Tonight we will do a live experiment\Nwith one of my scientists, Boris,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.64,0:00:44.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to resurrect these animals for you,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.99,0:00:46.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these females.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:48.36,0:00:49.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thanks, Boris.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:51.52,0:00:53.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So look around you.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.74,0:00:57.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There is an amazing diversity\Nof living organisms on this planet,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.81,0:01:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from bacteria to fungi to plants\Nto animals to human -
Dialogue: 0,0:01:02.17,0:01:04.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,nothing looks alike.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:04.55,0:01:11.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But do you know that all this diversity\Narose once from a universal ancestor
Dialogue: 0,0:01:11.19,0:01:14.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,around 3.5 billion years ago?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.18,0:01:18.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this ancestor of all living organisms\Nwas a single simple cell,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.96,0:01:21.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something like a bacterium.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:21.45,0:01:26.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But how do we know that all life\Nhas evolved from a single cell?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:27.03,0:01:31.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know this because we all\Nshare the same alphabet;
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.14,0:01:34.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we have the same DNA code.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:34.19,0:01:37.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,DNA is a magical molecule of life.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:37.60,0:01:42.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And DNA is only made up\Nof four chemical building blocks:
Dialogue: 0,0:01:43.68,0:01:46.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:46.74,0:01:51.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So only four letters\Nthat make the whole alphabet of life.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.17,0:01:57.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So yes, from bacteria to human,\Nwe only need four letters,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:58.54,0:02:03.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but then, what's our DNA\Ninstruction book looking like?
Dialogue: 0,0:02:03.85,0:02:08.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In each of our cells, we have\Naround three billion of those letters,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:08.89,0:02:12.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,organized on 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.23,0:02:13.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you see here,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:13.24,0:02:15.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's a compaction of these four letters.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:15.58,0:02:20.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what makes you different from me\Nis that these letters change.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.18,0:02:24.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These letters change\Nbetween all these individuals.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:25.44,0:02:30.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if we all have the same genetic code,\Nit means we are all related.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:30.62,0:02:31.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yes, we are.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:31.62,0:02:34.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are all cousins from each other.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:34.49,0:02:36.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then, you may wonder:
Dialogue: 0,0:02:36.20,0:02:39.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How did we evolve to so many complex forms
Dialogue: 0,0:02:39.60,0:02:43.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from such a single cell a long time ago?
Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.44,0:02:48.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's when I want you to remember\Nthe card game we have been playing.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:48.27,0:02:52.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What's essential for evolution\Nis genetic variation,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:52.75,0:02:55.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,its changes in these letters.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:55.12,0:02:58.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So these letters change randomly.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.90,0:03:01.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And most of these changes are neutral,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:01.60,0:03:05.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they have no effect\Non the fitness of the individual,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:05.32,0:03:08.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but if a change is an advantage,\Nit can be selected.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:08.93,0:03:09.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Remember?
Dialogue: 0,0:03:09.95,0:03:13.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We select if a positive mutation appears.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:13.10,0:03:14.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why is it selected?
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.27,0:03:16.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because the individual gets an advantage
Dialogue: 0,0:03:16.76,0:03:19.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it might reproduce\Nmore than the others
Dialogue: 0,0:03:19.16,0:03:21.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so the mutation is transmitted.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:22.14,0:03:23.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we know
Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.64,0:03:26.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that natural selection is cumulative,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.04,0:03:28.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we can accumulate\Nthis positive mutation,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:28.64,0:03:31.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is important\Nfor adaptation and evolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:32.02,0:03:34.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So as I said, during the card game,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:34.23,0:03:38.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there is nothing of intelligence\Nor a creator out there
Dialogue: 0,0:03:38.60,0:03:40.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for evolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:40.100,0:03:42.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And look at cancer development.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:42.84,0:03:45.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Cancer development\Nis also an evolutionary process;
Dialogue: 0,0:03:45.89,0:03:48.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it follows this same mechanism.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:48.21,0:03:53.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Each of our cells accumulate\Nrandomly these changes, these mutations,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.78,0:03:58.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but if one of these normal cells\Nsuddenly gets a growth advantage -
Dialogue: 0,0:03:58.20,0:04:01.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a mutation that gives it a growth\Nadvantage compared to the other cells -
Dialogue: 0,0:04:01.86,0:04:04.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it will start to grow quicker -
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.69,0:04:06.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an uncontrolled proliferation -
Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.52,0:04:08.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and cancer can occur.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:08.81,0:04:10.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course, it's a problem to human.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:10.67,0:04:12.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know it.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:12.02,0:04:14.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But you know, animals also get cancer.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:14.95,0:04:17.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But do all of them get cancer?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:18.04,0:04:22.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are a few mysterious species\Nthat don't develop cancer.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:22.96,0:04:24.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What are they?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.12,0:04:27.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The most notorious one\Nis this naked mole rat.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:27.27,0:04:29.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Very cute animal, no?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:29.07,0:04:30.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:04:30.07,0:04:32.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For scientists,\Nit's a very interesting animal.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.79,0:04:35.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's very small. It's like a mouse.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.34,0:04:39.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it lives for 30 years,\Nand a mouse lives for four years.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:39.36,0:04:40.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What's also interesting is
Dialogue: 0,0:04:40.97,0:04:43.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you inject the cancer cell\Nin this animal,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:43.71,0:04:45.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it will not develop.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.79,0:04:46.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And why?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:47.16,0:04:49.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Scientists have searched\Nfor this for years
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.18,0:04:51.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and found that they\Nhave this kind of molecule -
Dialogue: 0,0:04:51.43,0:04:53.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a high molecular mass, hyaluronan;
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.81,0:04:56.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's a kind of super sugar -
Dialogue: 0,0:04:56.63,0:04:59.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that is secreted around\Nthe cells of these animals,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:00.00,0:05:02.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it makes their tissue very elastic.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:02.92,0:05:04.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And why is it important?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.08,0:05:08.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because these animals dig into the soil,\Nthey make these burrows,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:08.37,0:05:10.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so their tissue\Nneeds to be very elastic.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:10.66,0:05:12.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So it's an adaptation to this.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.53,0:05:14.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what's interesting
Dialogue: 0,0:05:14.11,0:05:17.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that this molecule,\Nwhen it's secreted around the cell,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:17.66,0:05:21.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,prevents the cell from dividing\Nor proliferating further.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:21.60,0:05:22.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you immediately see
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.90,0:05:26.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the interesting application\Nof the discovery of such a molecule.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:27.07,0:05:30.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if you think this is\Nthe only interesting animal out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.13,0:05:31.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you’re wrong.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:31.44,0:05:36.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nature is full of mysterious species,\Nwhere we can discover so much.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:36.67,0:05:41.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Nature has been an inspiration\Nto scientists for so many years.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:41.45,0:05:43.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Like Albert Einstein said,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:43.56,0:05:49.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"We know less than one thousandth of 1%\Nof what nature has to reveal to us."
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.46,0:05:51.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if we start to destroy our nature,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:51.72,0:05:55.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we will not even discover\Neverything that's out there.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.35,0:05:56.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Look at this gecko.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.16,0:06:02.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This gecko, we know,\Ncan run quickly on vertical glass.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:02.81,0:06:03.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But how?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:03.82,0:06:07.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How can these animals\Nadhere so strongly to glass
Dialogue: 0,0:06:07.97,0:06:09.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then just run on it?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:09.92,0:06:10.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so, for long,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:10.92,0:06:12.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,scientists looked at the molecule:
Dialogue: 0,0:06:12.70,0:06:16.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What kind of molecule is secreted\Nthat makes them like a glue,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:16.81,0:06:18.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like a strong adhesion?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:18.95,0:06:21.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in fact, by looking at these fingers,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:21.21,0:06:24.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they found there's nothing\Nof a molecule that is secreted,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:24.22,0:06:25.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it's a structure.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.83,0:06:27.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What they discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:06:27.38,0:06:31.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that underneath these fingers,\Nthere are these hair-like structures,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:31.92,0:06:33.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,millions of them.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:33.35,0:06:36.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if you look even\Nat the nanoscopic level,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:36.13,0:06:38.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you see that at the end\Nof all of these hairs,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:38.27,0:06:42.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you have hundreds of these\Nspatula-likes structures.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:42.63,0:06:45.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when these are\Nin strong contact with glass,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.01,0:06:49.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it creates a strong adhesion\Njust through simple Van der Waals forces,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:49.45,0:06:52.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the simple forces\Nthat make this strong adhesion.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:52.67,0:06:55.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when they rotate their fingers,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:55.73,0:07:00.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this force releases immediately\Nand they can run further.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.27,0:07:01.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:01.27,0:07:05.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,laboratories have now been interested\Nto reconstruct these nano-structures
Dialogue: 0,0:07:05.43,0:07:08.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to make strong adhesives.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:08.59,0:07:10.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's what I want to show you:
Dialogue: 0,0:07:10.48,0:07:14.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's so interesting to study biology\Nbecause there's so much to discover,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.53,0:07:17.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because there has been\Nsuch a long evolution
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.06,0:07:21.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of all kinds of specimens\Nwith all kinds of different adaptations.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.18,0:07:24.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what has puzzled me is reproduction.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:24.80,0:07:27.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You know that for life,\Nit's essential to reproduce;
Dialogue: 0,0:07:28.18,0:07:31.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we need to reproduce\Nor the species will go extinct.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.44,0:07:34.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But do you know that sexual reproduction,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:34.21,0:07:35.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the one we all know,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:35.87,0:07:38.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the queen of problems\Nin evolutionary biology?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:38.76,0:07:41.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For us scientists, it's really a puzzle.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:41.64,0:07:43.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And why?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.14,0:07:47.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Think about all the energy you need\Nto spend to find a partner,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:47.10,0:07:49.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all the strategies the male's developed
Dialogue: 0,0:07:49.86,0:07:53.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to try to attract a female,\Nto try to fertilize her,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:54.07,0:07:57.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to the point that there is\Na battle of sexes.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:57.16,0:07:58.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Believe me -
Dialogue: 0,0:07:58.93,0:08:02.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a man penis is boring\Ncompared to this insect penis.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:02.74,0:08:05.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a penis of a bean weevil,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.01,0:08:06.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,full of spines,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:06.75,0:08:11.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the males with the longest spines\Nare those that fertilize most of the eggs.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:12.10,0:08:14.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Of course, the female cannot\Nreproduce anymore afterwards,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.96,0:08:18.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but at least, the male is sure\Nhe has transmitted his genes.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:19.17,0:08:20.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A look at this fruit fly.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:20.74,0:08:24.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You might have many fruit flies\Nin summer around your trash bin.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:24.96,0:08:27.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This fruit fly, Drosophila bifurca,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:27.62,0:08:32.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,produces giant sperm,\N20 times its body size.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:32.03,0:08:33.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's like, you men,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:33.04,0:08:36.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you would have a sperm\Nthat is twenty times your body size,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:36.75,0:08:38.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like a building of 12 stories.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.65,0:08:39.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:08:39.68,0:08:40.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wow!
Dialogue: 0,0:08:41.13,0:08:44.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But at least, when it\Ntransmits this to the female,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.70,0:08:47.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the receptacle of the female is filled,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:47.12,0:08:49.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there is no space for another sperm,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:49.93,0:08:52.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so it's sure to transmit its genes.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:53.01,0:08:56.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then, why did such a complicated mode\Nof reproduction evolve?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:56.88,0:08:58.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And why is it so omnipresent?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:58.79,0:09:01.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Is it not just simpler to clone yourself?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:01.02,0:09:03.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One individual makes a new individual?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:04.22,0:09:08.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So why is sexual reproduction\Nso prevalent in nature?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:09.55,0:09:11.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, for us biologists,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:11.79,0:09:17.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sex is just about mixing genetic material\Nof one individual with another individual
Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.21,0:09:21.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to create each generation\Nof offsprings that are all different.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:21.81,0:09:24.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's a force of sexual reproduction:
Dialogue: 0,0:09:24.37,0:09:28.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It creates every generation\Nthis genetic variability
Dialogue: 0,0:09:28.84,0:09:31.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that is essential for evolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:31.35,0:09:35.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So does it mean that animals\Nthat lose sexual reproduction
Dialogue: 0,0:09:35.11,0:09:37.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or that abandon it\Nor have no sexual reproduction
Dialogue: 0,0:09:37.70,0:09:40.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,cannot evolve, cannot adapt?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.19,0:09:42.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's what we thought
Dialogue: 0,0:09:42.18,0:09:43.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until we discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.78,0:09:46.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what has been called\Nan evolutionary scandal
Dialogue: 0,0:09:46.24,0:09:48.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or an ancient sexual scandal:
Dialogue: 0,0:09:48.26,0:09:51.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a microscopic world of animals,\Nthe bdelloid rotifers.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:51.82,0:09:57.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are females cloning themselves;\Nnever has any male been discovered.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.11,0:10:02.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They exist since millions of years\Nand we found them everywhere.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.50,0:10:05.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they are not only interesting
Dialogue: 0,0:10:05.06,0:10:08.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they can reproduce without males\Nand evolve without males,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:08.80,0:10:10.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we can also dry them out.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.86,0:10:11.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I showed you:
Dialogue: 0,0:10:11.90,0:10:14.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can just take them, here in the park,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:14.30,0:10:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a piece of lichen, a dry lichen,\Nbring it back to the lab,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.47,0:10:20.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what you see -
Dialogue: 0,0:10:20.74,0:10:22.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's also what you see\Non the microscope -
Dialogue: 0,0:10:23.04,0:10:25.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is this dry lichen\Nand then they are in trance.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:25.40,0:10:28.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But when we add water,\Nthey start to live again.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.57,0:10:29.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So these animals -
Dialogue: 0,0:10:29.95,0:10:33.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can dry them out\Nat any stage in their life,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:33.92,0:10:35.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we can keep them dry.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:35.64,0:10:37.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can put them in the -80 freezer.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:37.99,0:10:40.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can send them\Nto collaborators in the US,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:40.78,0:10:43.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and if they add water, they live again.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:44.32,0:10:46.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's not only one species.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:46.80,0:10:49.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You could think, "Yeah,\Nbut it's just this rare animal."
Dialogue: 0,0:10:49.46,0:10:52.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,No, it's more than 400 species\Nbeing described
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.08,0:10:56.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as having diversified\Ninto many morphological forms -
Dialogue: 0,0:10:56.64,0:11:00.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all females reproducing without males,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:00.48,0:11:03.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,most of them being able to dry out.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:03.36,0:11:05.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course this makes the newspaper:
Dialogue: 0,0:11:05.83,0:11:08.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,["Asexual reproduction is possible."]
Dialogue: 0,0:11:08.29,0:11:10.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yes, it's possible.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:11.17,0:11:15.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then, of course, you might think,\N"How did these females evolve?"
Dialogue: 0,0:11:15.45,0:11:17.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How do they create variability? -
Dialogue: 0,0:11:17.35,0:11:19.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because we know\Nit's essential for evolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:19.45,0:11:23.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, if they just cloned themselves,\Nhow do they ever evolve and adapt?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:24.57,0:11:25.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so, as a scientist,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:25.66,0:11:28.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it is important to have\Nthese hypothesis to think of.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:28.54,0:11:29.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So our hypothesis is -
Dialogue: 0,0:11:29.88,0:11:31.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's easy to work with this animal.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:31.55,0:11:35.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You take a female in the wild,\Nyou start to clone it in the lab,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:35.14,0:11:37.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you have millions of identical females,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:37.82,0:11:39.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we dry them up,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:40.69,0:11:42.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then, our question was,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.38,0:11:44.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Do these females -
Dialogue: 0,0:11:44.38,0:11:47.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What happens to the genetic\Nmaterial of these females
Dialogue: 0,0:11:47.50,0:11:48.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when we dry them up?"
Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.78,0:11:50.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know from bacteria
Dialogue: 0,0:11:50.44,0:11:54.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that drying up breaks\Ntheir genetic material into pieces.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:54.46,0:11:57.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Is this also happening in these animals?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.57,0:12:00.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, what if they don't\Nrepair perfectly these pieces,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:00.72,0:12:03.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is this a way to create variability? -
Dialogue: 0,0:12:03.29,0:12:04.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,meaning,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:04.29,0:12:09.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you replace males by drying up,\Nyou might also evolve.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:09.45,0:12:11.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so, that's what we tested.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:11.58,0:12:15.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So Boris has designed\Na very nice protocol in the lab
Dialogue: 0,0:12:15.39,0:12:18.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to dry them up\Nwith a high survival rate.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.80,0:12:22.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what happened to these females\Nwhen they are dried up?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:22.10,0:12:25.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see, the longer they are dried up,\Nthe more their DNA is broken.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:25.70,0:12:28.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The simpler the gel\Nand the DNA migrates through it,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:28.85,0:12:30.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the smaller the pieces.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:31.12,0:12:36.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when we hydrate them,\Nwhat you see is that they start to repair.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.85,0:12:42.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they can come out of drying,\Nthey have their broken DNA -
Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.62,0:12:45.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they can survive\Nwith broken DNA apparently -
Dialogue: 0,0:12:45.36,0:12:47.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then they start to repair.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:48.20,0:12:49.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you know,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:49.31,0:12:50.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you have a cancer cell,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.69,0:12:55.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's known that sometimes\Nduring a division some DNA breaks,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.30,0:12:58.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it repairs this broken DNA\Nbut not perfectly,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:58.64,0:13:01.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can have an aggressive\Ncancer that appears.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.42,0:13:03.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What they do in proton therapy is
Dialogue: 0,0:13:03.29,0:13:07.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,use proton radiation to completely destroy\Nthe DNA of cancer cells
Dialogue: 0,0:13:07.70,0:13:12.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so the cells get completely broken DNA,\Nand molecules too.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:13.04,0:13:16.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we thought if we do\Nproton radiation to these animals,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:16.83,0:13:18.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what happens?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:18.87,0:13:21.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we took, again, a female,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:23.84,0:13:25.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we dry it up,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:26.25,0:13:28.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we add proton radiation,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:28.29,0:13:29.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what happens?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:29.51,0:13:31.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,DNA gets completely broken.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:31.75,0:13:35.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this 800 grays\Nof proton radiation are huge doses.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:35.46,0:13:38.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are no living cells\Nthat can survive this.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.03,0:13:40.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what's amazing here is -
Dialogue: 0,0:13:40.38,0:13:43.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you really see the DNA\Nis completely broken -
Dialogue: 0,0:13:43.14,0:13:48.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when we re-hydrate these females,\N99% of them survive.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:49.14,0:13:54.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they come out of drying\Nwith a completely broken DNA,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:54.03,0:13:55.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,without a problem,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:55.59,0:13:57.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then they start to repair.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:57.98,0:13:59.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course, the question is,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.80,0:14:02.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Do they really repair perfectly?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:02.99,0:14:07.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or do they put all the pieces\Nof DNA back together
Dialogue: 0,0:14:07.27,0:14:08.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into their 12 chromosomes? -
Dialogue: 0,0:14:08.86,0:14:10.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because we found they had 12 chromosomes -
Dialogue: 0,0:14:10.96,0:14:14.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or is that just creating\Nsome variability?"
Dialogue: 0,0:14:14.24,0:14:18.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we have here preliminary results\Nthat I'm just showing you tonight,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:18.58,0:14:20.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where we did this experiments,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.58,0:14:22.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where we dry them up,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:22.13,0:14:24.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we irradiate them,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:24.06,0:14:27.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then we look at its genomic structure.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:27.04,0:14:28.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not going too much into detail,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:28.62,0:14:30.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but what you see here is, for example,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:30.64,0:14:34.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,pieces of the ridge\Nof the genome from a female
Dialogue: 0,0:14:34.01,0:14:36.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before she was radiated or dried up.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:36.96,0:14:39.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Then we dry it up, we irradiate it,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:39.44,0:14:42.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we look at whether\Nthese pieces come back.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:42.04,0:14:45.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see here - everything is destroyed,\Nand whether we get these pieces back -
Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.79,0:14:49.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,showing it's stitching back\Nall these DNA pieces together
Dialogue: 0,0:14:49.78,0:14:51.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into these 12 chromosomes.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:51.56,0:14:52.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they can do this:
Dialogue: 0,0:14:52.59,0:14:56.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They reconstruct their genome as before,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.40,0:14:58.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or at least, that's what\Nit seems to look like.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:58.80,0:15:03.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And even the descendants\Nhave that same structure
Dialogue: 0,0:15:03.46,0:15:05.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as a parent’s alignment.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:05.62,0:15:08.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So is there no genetic\Nscrambling going on?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:08.94,0:15:10.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's possible.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:10.14,0:15:14.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Maybe they don't, indeed,\Nmake a completely new genome;
Dialogue: 0,0:15:14.07,0:15:16.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they keep their genome.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:16.10,0:15:18.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what we then ask ourselves is:
Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.76,0:15:22.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"How can you survive\Nwhen you are irradiated,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:22.93,0:15:27.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because not only your DNA is broken,\Nbut also your molecules must be broken?"
Dialogue: 0,0:15:27.97,0:15:30.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But they must keep\Ntheir molecules somehow intact
Dialogue: 0,0:15:30.97,0:15:34.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because you need these molecules\Nto repair your DNA.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:34.50,0:15:35.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what do they have?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.69,0:15:37.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What's their secret?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:37.37,0:15:40.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What did we find\Nby sequencing the first genome,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:40.12,0:15:43.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,really sequencing the entire\Nalphabet of this animal?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.95,0:15:47.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We found that they have\Na huge amount of antioxidants.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:47.57,0:15:50.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Antioxidants are essential
Dialogue: 0,0:15:50.32,0:15:53.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to protect yourself\Nfrom these damaged cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:53.43,0:15:55.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We all have antioxidants.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:55.10,0:15:57.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's because our cells\Naccumulate damages,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:57.36,0:16:00.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a kind of what we call oxidative stress,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:00.86,0:16:03.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and your proteins, your DNA -\Neverything gets damages.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:03.74,0:16:05.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's why we get older.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:05.40,0:16:09.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's why you put all these creams on\Nthat are full of antioxidants,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:09.24,0:16:11.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to try to prevent the aging of your cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:11.78,0:16:13.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it will not.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:13.20,0:16:17.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But here, these animals\Nhave a huge amount of these antioxidants.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:17.79,0:16:19.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So next time, think about it,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:19.67,0:16:23.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,don't buy all these expensive creams\Nfull of antioxidants,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:23.16,0:16:24.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just drink some rotifers.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:24.68,0:16:27.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You find them in the nature\Nand they might help.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:27.45,0:16:28.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:16:28.67,0:16:30.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But of course,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:30.28,0:16:31.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these are all things we discovered,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:31.97,0:16:32.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but as a scientist,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:32.98,0:16:36.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when you discover things,\Nyou have even more questions.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:36.69,0:16:37.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so recently,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:37.71,0:16:40.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I obtained a grant\Nfrom the European Research Council
Dialogue: 0,0:16:40.33,0:16:44.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to really try to demystify\Nall these mysteries we found.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:44.50,0:16:47.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We found they have\Nthis huge amount of antioxidants,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:47.11,0:16:49.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but are they really effective?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:49.29,0:16:51.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How do they repair this broken genome?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:51.58,0:16:53.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What are the molecules,\Nthe mechanism they have
Dialogue: 0,0:16:53.77,0:16:58.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to repair such a broken genome\Nto survive drying, freezing?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:58.61,0:17:00.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Then one last thing we discovered is
Dialogue: 0,0:17:00.75,0:17:05.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by sequencing their genome,\Nwe found, among their genetic material,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:05.48,0:17:09.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,genetic material\Nfrom bacteria, plants, fungi -
Dialogue: 0,0:17:09.76,0:17:13.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so they seem to integrate DNA\Nfrom their environment.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.52,0:17:16.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's of course puzzling.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:16.50,0:17:17.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But we also thought,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:17.51,0:17:19.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If they can integrate this foreign DNA,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:19.90,0:17:23.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,can they also integrate DNA\Nfrom other females out there,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:23.59,0:17:26.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,other rotifers that also dry up?
Dialogue: 0,0:17:26.11,0:17:27.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the first results we got on this
Dialogue: 0,0:17:27.84,0:17:33.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that we found some signatures\Nof DNA exchange between these females,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:33.23,0:17:37.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we think it's not conventional sex,\Nbecause we never found males,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:37.27,0:17:40.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so they are not using the strategy\Nthat all animals do -
Dialogue: 0,0:17:40.17,0:17:43.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a sperm and an ovocyte\Nto exchange DNA.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:43.60,0:17:46.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what is the strategy? We have no idea.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:46.74,0:17:48.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We call it sapphomixis -
Dialogue: 0,0:17:48.95,0:17:52.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's a mixing of genetic\Nmaterial between females.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:52.98,0:17:57.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you immediately see here\Nwhy it's so beautiful to be a scientist -
Dialogue: 0,0:17:57.83,0:18:02.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you discover a lot,\Nbut you have even more questions.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:02.13,0:18:03.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what's for sure
Dialogue: 0,0:18:03.32,0:18:07.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that we have a very interesting\Nmodel organism here to understand,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:07.74,0:18:10.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"How can they evolve without males?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:11.63,0:18:13.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How does sapphomixis happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:13.51,0:18:16.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And how can they survive\Nsuch extreme conditions
Dialogue: 0,0:18:16.38,0:18:20.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as drying up, freezing,\Nand high doses of radiation?"
Dialogue: 0,0:18:20.08,0:18:22.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's so much still to discover there.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:22.59,0:18:26.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And one of our next challenges\Nis to send them to space.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:26.48,0:18:29.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We got a grant from\Nthe European Space Agency
Dialogue: 0,0:18:29.57,0:18:34.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to send, in 2019, rotifers to space, RISE.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:34.80,0:18:37.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why? Because space is also\Nan extreme environment.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:37.58,0:18:39.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We have no idea at the moment
Dialogue: 0,0:18:39.32,0:18:42.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what this extreme environment has
Dialogue: 0,0:18:42.14,0:18:45.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as pressure on astronauts\Nor any living animal.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:45.43,0:18:48.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a very interesting\Nmodel organism to send out there
Dialogue: 0,0:18:48.39,0:18:52.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and to understand much better\Nwhat space is like.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:52.30,0:18:53.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And of course,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:53.61,0:18:56.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I cannot end this presentation\Nwithout thanking all the funding
Dialogue: 0,0:18:56.83,0:19:00.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but especially all the people\Nin my lab - many are here.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:01.63,0:19:04.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This work is never done by one person.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:04.62,0:19:07.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A lab is really a group\Nof persons working,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:07.53,0:19:08.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,tackling these questions.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:08.81,0:19:09.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A lot of frustrations.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:09.89,0:19:12.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They know it better than me right now.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:12.66,0:19:16.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, I would like to thank\Nthe rotifer and Boris
Dialogue: 0,0:19:16.26,0:19:17.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the whole experiment
Dialogue: 0,0:19:17.55,0:19:20.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because thanks to these rotifers,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:20.07,0:19:25.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'm really happy to go every day,\Nor almost every day, to my work.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:25.72,0:19:29.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At least, when I know I can do science\Nand I can work with rotifers,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:29.20,0:19:30.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'm a happy person.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:31.23,0:19:32.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:32.55,0:19:34.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)