[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:00.87,0:00:02.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Take a moment
Dialogue: 0,0:00:02.32,0:00:03.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and think about a virus.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.91,0:00:06.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What comes to your mind?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:06.73,0:00:07.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,An illness?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:08.01,0:00:09.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A fear?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:09.36,0:00:11.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Probably something really unpleasant.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:11.39,0:00:13.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And yet, viruses are not all the same.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:13.96,0:00:17.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's true, some of them cause\Ndevastating disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.51,0:00:21.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But others can do the exact opposite --\Nthey can cure disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:21.62,0:00:23.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These viruses are called "phages."
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.12,0:00:27.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, the first time I heard\Nabout phages was back in 2013.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.46,0:00:29.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,My father-in-law, who's a surgeon,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:29.63,0:00:32.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was telling me about a woman\Nhe was treating.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:32.08,0:00:35.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The woman had a knee injury,\Nrequired multiple surgeries,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:35.22,0:00:36.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and over the course of these,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.70,0:00:39.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,developed a chronic\Nbacterial infection in her leg.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:39.59,0:00:40.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Unfortunately for her,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:40.88,0:00:43.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the bacteria causing the infection\Nalso did not respond
Dialogue: 0,0:00:43.93,0:00:46.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to any antibiotic that was available.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:46.81,0:00:50.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So at this point, typically, the only\Noption left is to amputate the leg
Dialogue: 0,0:00:50.22,0:00:52.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to stop the infection\Nfrom spreading further.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.27,0:00:56.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, my father-in-law was desperate\Nfor a different kind of solution,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.82,0:01:01.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he applied for an experimental,\Nlast-resort treatment using phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:01.73,0:01:03.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And guess what? It worked.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.62,0:01:07.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Within three weeks of applying the phages,\Nthe chronic infection had healed up,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:07.81,0:01:10.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where before, no antibiotic was working.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.100,0:01:14.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I was fascinated by this weird conception:
Dialogue: 0,0:01:15.52,0:01:17.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,viruses curing an infection.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.62,0:01:22.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To this day, I am fascinated\Nby the medical potential of phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:22.12,0:01:25.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I actually quit my job last year\Nto build a company in this space.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:26.76,0:01:28.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, what is a phage?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:29.46,0:01:33.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The image that you see here was taken\Nby an electron microscope.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:33.20,0:01:36.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that means what we see on the screen\Nis in reality extremely tiny.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:37.25,0:01:41.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The grainy thing in the middle\Nwith the head, the long body
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.04,0:01:42.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a number of feet --
Dialogue: 0,0:01:42.51,0:01:45.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this is the image of a prototypical phage.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:45.23,0:01:46.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's kind of cute.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:46.47,0:01:48.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:01:48.96,0:01:50.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, take a look at your hand.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.83,0:01:56.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In our team, we've estimated\Nthat you have more than 10 billion phages
Dialogue: 0,0:01:56.10,0:01:57.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on each of your hands.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:57.94,0:01:59.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What are they doing there?
Dialogue: 0,0:01:59.70,0:02:00.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:02:00.97,0:02:03.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, viruses are good at infecting cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:03.79,0:02:06.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And phages are great\Nat infecting bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:06.03,0:02:08.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And your hand, just like\Nso much of our body,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:08.48,0:02:10.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is a hotbed of bacterial activity,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:10.94,0:02:14.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,making it an ideal\Nhunting ground for phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:14.20,0:02:17.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because after all, phages hunt bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:17.91,0:02:21.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's also important to know that phages\Nare extremely selective hunters.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:22.01,0:02:25.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Typically, a phage will only infect\Na single bacterial species.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:26.65,0:02:29.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in this rendering here,\Nthe phage that you see
Dialogue: 0,0:02:29.66,0:02:32.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hunts for a bacterium\Ncalled Staphylococcus aureus,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:32.85,0:02:36.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is known as MRSA\Nin its drug-resistant form.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:36.13,0:02:38.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It causes skin or wound infections.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:39.07,0:02:41.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The way the phage hunts is with its feet.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:42.36,0:02:44.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The feet are actually extremely\Nsensitive receptors,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:44.89,0:02:47.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on the lookout for the right surface\Non a bacterial cell.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:48.16,0:02:49.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Once it finds it,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.43,0:02:52.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the phage will latch on\Nto the bacterial cell wall
Dialogue: 0,0:02:52.39,0:02:53.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then inject its DNA.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.37,0:02:56.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,DNA sits in the head of the phage
Dialogue: 0,0:02:56.06,0:02:58.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and travels into the bacteria\Nthrough the long body.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:59.31,0:03:01.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At this point, the phage\Nreprograms the bacteria
Dialogue: 0,0:03:02.02,0:03:04.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into producing lots of new phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:04.42,0:03:07.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The bacteria, in effect,\Nbecomes a phage factory.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:07.70,0:03:11.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Once around 50-100 phages have accumulated\Nwithin the bacteria cell,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:11.69,0:03:14.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the phages are then able\Nto release a protein
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.10,0:03:16.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that disrupts the bacteria cell wall.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:16.51,0:03:19.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As the bacteria bursts,\Nthe phages move out
Dialogue: 0,0:03:19.70,0:03:22.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and go on the hunt again\Nfor a new bacteria to infect.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.37,0:03:26.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, I'm sorry, this probably\Nsounded like a scary virus again.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:27.22,0:03:29.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it's exactly this ability of phages --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:29.89,0:03:32.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to multiply within the bacteria\Nand then kill them --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:32.60,0:03:35.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that make them so interesting\Nfrom a medical point of view.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:35.76,0:03:38.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The other part that I find\Nextremely interesting
Dialogue: 0,0:03:38.06,0:03:40.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the scale at which this is going on.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:40.34,0:03:43.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, just five years ago,\NI really had no clue about phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:43.85,0:03:47.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And yet, today I would tell you\Nthey are part of a natural principle.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:47.69,0:03:51.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Phages and bacteria go back\Nto the earliest days of evolution.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:51.73,0:03:55.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They have always existed in tandem,\Nkeeping each other in check.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:55.76,0:03:59.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this is really the story of yin\Nand yang, of the hunter and the prey,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:59.66,0:04:01.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at a microscopic level.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:02.00,0:04:04.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some scientists have even estimated
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.26,0:04:07.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that phages are the most\Nabundant organism on our planet.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:08.86,0:04:11.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So even before we continue\Ntalking about their medical potential,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:11.96,0:04:15.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think everybody should know\Nabout phages and their role on earth:
Dialogue: 0,0:04:15.15,0:04:17.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they hunt, infect and kill bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:18.55,0:04:21.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, how come we have something\Nthat works so well in nature,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:21.54,0:04:23.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,every day, everywhere around us,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:23.95,0:04:25.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and yet, in most parts of the world,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:25.73,0:04:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we do not have a single drug on the market
Dialogue: 0,0:04:27.77,0:04:30.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that uses this principle\Nto combat bacterial infections?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:31.46,0:04:35.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The simple answer is: no one\Nhas developed this kind of a drug yet,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.30,0:04:38.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at least not one that conforms\Nto the Western regulatory standards
Dialogue: 0,0:04:38.48,0:04:40.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that set the norm\Nfor so much of the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:41.25,0:04:44.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To understand why,\Nwe need to move back in time.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.30,0:04:47.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a picture of Félix d'Herelle.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:47.52,0:04:50.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He is one of the two scientists\Ncredited with discovering phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:50.99,0:04:54.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Except, when he discovered them\Nback in 1917, he had no clue
Dialogue: 0,0:04:54.77,0:04:56.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what he had discovered.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:56.72,0:05:00.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He was interested in a disease\Ncalled bacillary dysentery,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:00.03,0:05:02.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a bacterial infection\Nthat causes severe diarrhea,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:02.93,0:05:05.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and back then, was actually\Nkilling a lot of people,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:05.40,0:05:09.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because after all, no cure for bacterial\Ninfections had been invented.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:09.16,0:05:13.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He was looking at samples from patients\Nwho had survived this illness.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:13.10,0:05:15.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he found that something\Nweird was going on.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:15.36,0:05:17.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Something in the sample\Nwas killing the bacteria
Dialogue: 0,0:05:17.74,0:05:19.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that were supposed to cause the disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:19.95,0:05:22.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To find out what was going on,\Nhe did an ingenious experiment.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:23.40,0:05:25.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He took the sample, filtered it
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.54,0:05:28.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until he was sure that only something\Nvery small could have remained,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:28.82,0:05:33.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then took a tiny drop and added it\Nto freshly cultivated bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:33.09,0:05:35.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he observed\Nthat within a number of hours,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:35.29,0:05:37.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the bacteria had been killed.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:37.28,0:05:41.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He then repeated this,\Nagain filtering, taking a tiny drop,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:41.08,0:05:43.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,adding it to the next batch\Nof fresh bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:43.68,0:05:46.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He did this in sequence 50 times,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:46.21,0:05:48.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,always observing the same effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:48.10,0:05:50.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And at this point,\Nhe made two conclusions.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:50.84,0:05:54.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,First of all, the obvious one:\Nyes, something was killing the bacteria,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:54.30,0:05:55.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it was in that liquid.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.82,0:05:58.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The other one: it had to be\Nbiologic in nature,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:58.63,0:06:02.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because a tiny drop was sufficient\Nto have a huge impact.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:02.85,0:06:06.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He called the agent he had found\Nan "invisible microbe"
Dialogue: 0,0:06:06.10,0:06:07.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and gave it the name "bacteriophage,"
Dialogue: 0,0:06:07.93,0:06:10.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which, literally translated,\Nmeans "bacteria eater."
Dialogue: 0,0:06:10.80,0:06:13.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And by the way, this is one\Nof the most fundamental discoveries
Dialogue: 0,0:06:13.82,0:06:15.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of modern microbiology.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.15,0:06:19.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So many modern techniques go back\Nto our understanding of how phages work --
Dialogue: 0,0:06:19.39,0:06:21.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in genomic editing,\Nbut also in other fields.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:21.70,0:06:24.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And just today, the Nobel Prize\Nin chemistry was announced
Dialogue: 0,0:06:24.69,0:06:28.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for two scientists who work with phages\Nand develop drugs based on that.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:29.63,0:06:31.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, back in the 1920s and 1930s,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:31.78,0:06:34.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,people also immediately saw\Nthe medical potential of phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:34.72,0:06:36.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After all, albeit invisible,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:36.40,0:06:38.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you had something\Nthat reliably was killing bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:39.49,0:06:42.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Companies that still exist today,\Nsuch as Abbott, Squibb or Lilly,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:42.97,0:06:44.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sold phage preparations.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.20,0:06:48.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the reality is, if you're starting\Nwith an invisible microbe,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:48.28,0:06:50.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's very difficult to get\Nto a reliable drug.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:51.12,0:06:53.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just imagine going to the FDA today
Dialogue: 0,0:06:53.13,0:06:55.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and telling them all about\Nthat invisible virus
Dialogue: 0,0:06:55.46,0:06:57.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you want to give to patients.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:57.75,0:07:00.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So when chemical antibiotics\Nemerged in the 1940s,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.70,0:07:02.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they completely changed the game.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:02.81,0:07:04.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this guy played a major role.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:04.84,0:07:06.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is Alexander Fleming.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:06.16,0:07:07.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He won the Nobel Prize in medicine
Dialogue: 0,0:07:07.99,0:07:10.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for his work contributing\Nto the development
Dialogue: 0,0:07:10.15,0:07:12.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the first antibiotic, penicillin.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:12.87,0:07:16.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And antibiotics really work\Nvery differently than phages.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.02,0:07:19.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For the most part, they inhibit\Nthe growth of the bacteria,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:19.82,0:07:22.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they don't care so much\Nwhich kind of bacteria are present.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:23.20,0:07:25.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The ones that we call broad-spectrum
Dialogue: 0,0:07:25.15,0:07:28.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,will even work against\Na whole bunch of bacteria out there.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:28.77,0:07:31.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Compare that to phages,\Nwhich work extremely narrowly
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.28,0:07:32.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,against one bacterial species,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:32.75,0:07:34.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can see the obvious advantage.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:35.58,0:07:38.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, back then, this must have felt\Nlike a dream come true.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:38.45,0:07:41.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You had a patient\Nwith a suspected bacterial infection,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:41.67,0:07:43.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you gave him the antibiotic,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.29,0:07:46.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and without really needing to know\Nanything else about the bacteria
Dialogue: 0,0:07:46.48,0:07:47.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,causing the disease,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:47.67,0:07:49.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,many of the patients recovered.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:49.21,0:07:51.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And so as we developed\Nmore and more antibiotics,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:51.59,0:07:55.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they, rightly so, became the first-line\Ntherapy for bacterial infections.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.83,0:08:00.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And by the way, they have contributed\Ntremendously to our life expectancy.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:00.09,0:08:02.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are only able to do\Ncomplex medical interventions
Dialogue: 0,0:08:02.82,0:08:04.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and medical surgeries today
Dialogue: 0,0:08:04.49,0:08:05.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because we have antibiotics,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.89,0:08:08.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we don't risk the patient\Ndying the very next day
Dialogue: 0,0:08:08.42,0:08:12.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the bacterial infection that he might\Ncontract during the operation.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:12.29,0:08:16.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we started to forget about phages,\Nespecially in Western medicine.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:16.64,0:08:20.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to a certain extent, even when\NI was growing up, the notion was:
Dialogue: 0,0:08:20.40,0:08:24.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we have solved bacterial infections;\Nwe have antibiotics.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:25.18,0:08:27.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Of course, today,\Nwe know that this is wrong.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:28.55,0:08:30.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, most of you\Nwill have heard about superbugs.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:30.97,0:08:33.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those are bacteria\Nthat have become resistant
Dialogue: 0,0:08:33.14,0:08:37.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to many, if not all, of the antibiotics\Nthat we have developed
Dialogue: 0,0:08:37.67,0:08:39.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to treat this infection.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:39.76,0:08:41.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How did we get here?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:41.12,0:08:44.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, we weren't as smart\Nas we thought we were.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.58,0:08:47.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As we started using\Nantibiotics everywhere --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:47.54,0:08:50.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in hospitals, to treat and prevent;\Nat home, for simple colds;
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.96,0:08:53.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on farms, to keep animals healthy --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:53.24,0:08:54.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the bacteria evolved.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:55.51,0:08:59.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the onslaught of antibiotics\Nthat were all around them,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:59.38,0:09:02.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,those bacteria survived\Nthat were best able to adapt.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:03.02,0:09:05.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, we call these\N"multidrug-resistant bacteria."
Dialogue: 0,0:09:06.28,0:09:08.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And let me put a scary number out there.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:08.44,0:09:10.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In a recent study commissioned\Nby the UK government,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:10.92,0:09:13.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was estimated that by 2050,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:13.34,0:09:17.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ten million people could die every year\Nfrom multidrug-resistant infections.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.87,0:09:21.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Compare that to eight million deaths\Nfrom cancer per year today,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:21.04,0:09:23.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can see\Nthat this is a scary number.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:23.79,0:09:26.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the good news is,\Nphages have stuck around.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:27.01,0:09:30.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And let me tell you, they are not\Nimpressed by multidrug resistance.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:30.24,0:09:31.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:09:31.42,0:09:37.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They are just as happily killing\Nand hunting bacteria all around us.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:38.03,0:09:41.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they've also stayed selective,\Nwhich today is really a good thing.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:41.35,0:09:44.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Today, we are able to reliably identify\Na bacterial pathogen
Dialogue: 0,0:09:44.86,0:09:47.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's causing an infection\Nin many settings.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.38,0:09:50.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And their selectivity will help us\Navoid some of the side effects
Dialogue: 0,0:09:50.50,0:09:54.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that are commonly associated\Nwith broad-spectrum antibiotics.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:54.61,0:09:58.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But maybe the best news of all is:\Nthey are no longer an invisible microbe.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:58.47,0:09:59.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can look at them.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.82,0:10:01.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we did so together before.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:01.28,0:10:03.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We can sequence their DNA.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:03.16,0:10:04.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We understand how they replicate.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.78,0:10:06.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we understand the limitations.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:06.69,0:10:08.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are in a great place
Dialogue: 0,0:10:08.08,0:10:12.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to now develop strong and reliable\Nphage-based pharmaceuticals.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:12.12,0:10:14.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's what's happening\Naround the globe.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:14.32,0:10:17.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,More than 10 biotech companies,\Nincluding our own company,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:17.10,0:10:20.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are developing human-phage applications\Nto treat bacterial infections.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:20.71,0:10:24.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A number of clinical trials\Nare getting underway in Europe and the US.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:25.75,0:10:28.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I'm convinced\Nthat we're standing on the verge
Dialogue: 0,0:10:28.08,0:10:30.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of a renaissance of phage therapy.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:30.07,0:10:34.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to me, the correct way to depict\Nthe phage is something like this.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:34.86,0:10:37.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:10:37.37,0:10:40.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To me, phages are the superheroes\Nthat we have been waiting for
Dialogue: 0,0:10:40.87,0:10:43.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in our fight against\Nmultidrug-resistant infections.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:44.62,0:10:47.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the next time you think about a virus,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:47.15,0:10:48.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,keep this image in mind.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:49.24,0:10:52.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After all, a phage might\None day save your life.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:52.81,0:10:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:54.02,0:10:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)