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Some years ago,

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I was on an airplane with my son
who was just five years old at the time.

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My son was so excited
about being on this airplane with mommy.

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He's looking all around
and he's checking things out

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and he's checking people out,

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and he sees this man, and he says, "Hey,

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that guy looks like Daddy."

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And I look at the man,

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and he didn't look anything
at all like my husband,

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nothing at all.

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And so then I start
looking around on the plane,

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and I notice this man

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was the only black guy on the plane.

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And I thought,

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all right.

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I'm going to have to have
a little talk with my son

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about how not all black people look alike.

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My son, he lifts his head up,
and he says to me,

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"I hope he doesn't rob the plane."

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And I said, "What? What did you say?"

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And he says, "Well, I hope that man
doesn't rob the plane."

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And I said, "Well, why would you say that?

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You know Daddy wouldn't rob a plane."

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And he says, "Yeah, yeah,
yeah, well, I know."

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And I said, "Well,
why would you say that?"

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And he looked at me
with this really sad face,

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and he says,

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"I don't know why I said that.

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I don't know why I was thinking that."

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We are living with such severe
racial stratification

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that even a five-year old

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can tell us what's supposed
to happen next,

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even with no evildoer,

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even with no explicit hatred.

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This association between
blackness and crime

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made its way into the mind
of my five-year old.

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It makes its way into all of our children,

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into all of us.

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Our minds are shaped
by the racial disparities

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we see out in the world,

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and the narratives that help us
to make sense of the disparities we see.

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Those people are criminals.

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Those people are violent.

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Those people are to be feared.

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When my research team
brought people into our lab

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and exposed them to faces,

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we found that exposure to black faces

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led them to see blurry images
of guns with greater clarity and speed.

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Bias cannot only control what we see,

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but where we look.

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We found that prompting people
to think of violent crime

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can lead them to direct their eyes
onto a black face

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and away from a white face.

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Prompting police officers
to think of capturing and shooting

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and arresting

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leads their eyes to settle
on black faces too.

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Bias can infect every aspect
of our criminal justice system.

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In a large dataset
of death-eligible defendants,

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we found that looking more black

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more than doubled their chances
of receiving a death sentence,

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at least when their victims were white.

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This effect is significant
even though we controlled

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for the severity of the crime

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and the defendant's attractiveness,

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and no matter what we controlled for,

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we found that black people

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were punished in proportion

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to the blackness
of their physical features:

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the more black,

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the more death-worthy.

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Bias can also influence
how teachers discipline students.

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My colleagues and I

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have found that teachers express a desire

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to discipline a black
middle school student

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more harshly than a white student
for the same repeated infractions.

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In a recent study,

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we're finding that teachers
treat black students as a group

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but white students as individuals.

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If, for example,
one black student misbehaves

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and then a different black student
misbehaves a few days later,

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the teacher responds
to that second black student

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as if he had misbehaved twice.

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It's as though the sins of one child

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get piled on to the other.

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We create categories
to make sense of the world,

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to assert some control and coherence

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to the stimuli that we're
constantly being bombarded with.

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Categorization and the bias that it seeds

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allow our brains to make judgments

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more quickly and efficiently,

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and we do this by instinctively
relying on patterns

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that seem predictable.

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Yet just as the categories we create

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allow us to make quick decisions,

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they also reinforce bias.

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So the very things that help us
to see the world

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also can blind us to it.

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They render our choices effortless,

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friction-free.

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Yet the exact a heavy toll.

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So what can we do?

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We are all vulnerable to bias,

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but we don't act on bias all the time.

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There are certain conditions
that can bring bias alive

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and other conditions that can muffle it.

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Let me give you an example.

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Many people are familiar
with the tech company Nextdoor.

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So their whole purpose is to create
stronger, healthier, safer neighborhoods.

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And so they offer this online space

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where neighbors can gather
and share information.

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Yet Nextdoor soon found
that they had a problem

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with racial profiling.

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In the typical case,

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people would look outside their window

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and see a black man
in their otherwise white neighborhood

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and make the snap judgment

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that he was up to no good,

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even when there was no evidence
of criminal wrongdoing.

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In many ways, how we behave online

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is a reflection of how
we behave in the world.

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But what we don't want to do
is create an easy-to-use system

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that can amplify bias

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and deepen racial disparities,

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rather than dismantling them.

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So the co-founder of Nextdoor
reached out to me and to others

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to try to figure out what to do,

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and they realized that
to curb racial profiling on the platform,

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they were going to have to add friction.

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That is, they were going
to have to slow people done.

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So Nextdoor had a choice to make,

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and against every impulse

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they decided to add friction.

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And they did this by adding
a simple checklist.

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There were three items on it.

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First, they asked users to pause

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and think, what was this person doing

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that made him suspicious?

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The category "black man"
is not ground for suspicion.

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Second, they asked users to describe
the person's physical features,

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not simply their race and gender.

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Third, they realized that a lot of people

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didn't seem to know
what racial profiling was,

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nor that they were engaging in it.

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So Nextdoor provided them
with a definition

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and told them that it
was strictly prohibited.

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Most of you have seen
those signs in airports

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and Metro stations,
"If you see something, say something."

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Nextdoor tried modifying this.

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"If you see something suspicious,
say something specific."

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And using this strategy

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by simply slowing people down,

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Nextdoor was able to curb
racial profiling by 75 percent.

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Now, people often will say to me,

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you can't add friction
in every situation, in every context,

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and especially for people who make
split second decisions all the time,

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but it turns out we can add frictions

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to more situations than we think.

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Working with the Oakland Police Department

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in California,

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I and a number of my colleagues
were able to help the Department

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to reduce the number of stops they made

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of people who were not
committing any serious crimes,

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and we did this by pushing officers

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to ask themselves a question

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before each and every stop they made:

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is this stop intelligence-led,

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yes or no?

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In other words,

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do I have prior information
to tie this particular person

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to a specific crime?

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By adding that question

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to the form officer's
complete doing the stop,

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they slow down, they pause,

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they think, why am I considering
pulling this person over?

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In 2017, before we added that
intelligence-led question to the form,

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officers made about 32,000 stops
across the city.

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In that next year,

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with the addition of this question,

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that fell to 19,000 stops.

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African-American stops alone
fell by 43 percent.

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And stopping fewer black people
did not make the city any more dangerous.

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In fact, the crime rate continued to fall

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and the city became safer for everybody.

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So one solution can come from reducing
the number of unnecessary stops.

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Another can come from improving
the quality of the stops

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officers do make.

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And technology can help us here.

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We all know about George Floyd's death

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because those who tried to come to his aid

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held cell phone cameras
to record that horrific, fatal encounter

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with the police.

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But we have all sorts of technology

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that we're not putting to good use.

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Police departments across the country

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are now required to wear
body-worn cameras,

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so we have recordings of not only
the most extreme and horrific encounters

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but of everyday interactions.

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With an interdisciplinary
team at Stanford,

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we've begun to use
machine learning techniques

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to analyze large numbers of encounters.

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This is to better understand what happens
in routine traffic stops.

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What we found was that
even when police officers

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are behaving professionally,

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they speak to black drivers
less respectfully than white drivers.

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In fact, from the words officers use alone

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we could predict whether they were talking
to a black driver or a white driver.

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The problem is that the vast majority
of the footage from these cameras

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is not used by police departments

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to understand what's
going on on the street

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or to train officers.

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And that's a shame.

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How does a routine stop

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turn into a deadly encounter?

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How did this happen
in George Floyd's case?

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How did it happen in others?

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When my eldest son was 16 years old,

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he discovered that
when white people look at him,

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they feel fear.

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Elevators are the worst, he said.

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When those doors close,

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people are trapped in this tiny space

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with someone they have been taught

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to associate with danger.

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My son senses their discomfort,

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and he smiles to put them at ease,

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to calm their fears.

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When he speaks,

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their bodies relax.

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They breathe easier.

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They take pleasure in his cadence,

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his diction, his word choice.

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He sounds like one of them.

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I used to think that my son
was a natural extrovert like his father,

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but I realized at that moment
in that conversation

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that his smile was not a sign

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that he wanted to connect
with would-be strangers.

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It was a talisman he's used
to protect himself,

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a survival skill he had honed
over thousands of elevator rides.

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He was learning to accommodate the tension

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that his skin color generated

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and that put his own life at risk.

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We know that the brain is wired for bias,

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and one way to interrupt that bias

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is to pause and to reflect
on the evidence of our assumptions,

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so we need to ask ourselves

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what assumptions do we bring

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when we step onto an elevator?

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Or an airplane?

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How do we make ourselves aware
of our own unconscious bias?

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Who do those assumptions keep safe?

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Who do they put at risk?

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Until we ask these questions,

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and insist that our schools
and our courts and our police departments

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and every institution do the same,

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we will continue to allow bias

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to blind us,

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and if we do,

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none of us are truly safe.

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Thank you.