0:00:05.709,0:00:10.792
What if you or a loved one[br]were diagnosed with an infectious disease:

0:00:10.797,0:00:14.239
strep throat, an ear infection,[br]bacterial pneumonia,

0:00:14.240,0:00:18.229
tuberculosis, or a sexually[br]transmitted disease?

0:00:18.230,0:00:23.028
Now imagine that there are[br]no drugs that will work

0:00:23.029,0:00:25.970
in effecting a cure for your infection.

0:00:25.971,0:00:28.040
This is pretty scary.

0:00:28.041,0:00:29.517
This is happening right now.

0:00:29.518,0:00:34.259
There are people dying,[br]just like they used to before 1928,

0:00:34.260,0:00:36.917
when penicillin was discovered.

0:00:36.918,0:00:40.482
Are we about to fall[br]into the edge of the volcano?

0:00:40.483,0:00:42.717
That would not be so good.

0:00:42.718,0:00:44.695
What I would like to propose today

0:00:44.696,0:00:49.011
is that we need to encourage[br]young and old scientists

0:00:49.012,0:00:53.233
to explore new opportunities[br]and new therapies.

0:00:53.234,0:00:56.034
Not just antibiotics.

0:00:56.035,0:00:58.206
What else do we have?

0:00:58.207,0:00:59.671
This is one of my heroes,

0:00:59.672,0:01:03.583
a Scottish microbiologist who became[br]Sir Alexander Fleming.

0:01:03.584,0:01:06.205
He discovered penicillin in 1928,

0:01:06.206,0:01:09.834
and he was worried[br]about antibiotic resistance, too.

0:01:09.835,0:01:11.551
Very, very concerned.

0:01:11.552,0:01:13.610
Antibiotics? Well, what are they?

0:01:13.611,0:01:20.138
Think of them as tiny chemical weapons[br]that are produced by bacteria and fungi,

0:01:20.139,0:01:24.709
so that they can kill off competitors[br]in a nutrient-limited environment.

0:01:24.710,0:01:30.022
These genes for antibiotics have been[br]around for 4 million years,

0:01:30.042,0:01:33.590
long before we humans needed Z-Paks.

0:01:33.591,0:01:36.059
So this is not a new thing.

0:01:37.080,0:01:41.000
Antibiotic resistance can be[br]easily detected,

0:01:41.011,0:01:44.511
and antibiotic resistance[br]is another weapon.

0:01:44.512,0:01:48.655
Do you remember Spy vs Spy,[br]if you're old enough?

0:01:48.656,0:01:50.534
So it's an escalation of weapons.

0:01:50.535,0:01:52.703
The antibiotic producers,[br]that's one weapon.

0:01:52.704,0:01:56.076
The antibiotic resistance[br]is another weapon.

0:01:56.077,0:01:59.299
Antibiotic resistance is one[br]of those things that my students

0:01:59.300,0:02:03.128
- and there's two of them -[br]I told you I was going to use the picture.

0:02:03.129,0:02:08.625
You can detect antibiotic resistance[br]by growing plate cultures of bacteria.

0:02:08.626,0:02:12.626
On the left you have E. coli;[br]on the right you have Staph aureus.

0:02:12.643,0:02:17.593
And those little paper discs are treated[br]with antibiotics like penicillin,

0:02:17.594,0:02:20.667
tetracycline, Vancomycin,[br]you guys did this, too.

0:02:20.680,0:02:22.584
This is not new stuff.

0:02:22.585,0:02:24.990
They did great, they did great by the way.

0:02:24.991,0:02:27.454
When you look at antibiotic resistance,

0:02:27.455,0:02:31.041
this means that we're[br]now facing Super Bugs.

0:02:31.042,0:02:34.668
And I don't mean "super" in a good "Yay!",

0:02:34.675,0:02:37.165
"super" in a scary way.

0:02:37.166,0:02:38.249
What about bacteria?

0:02:38.250,0:02:42.250
You've heard of MRSA,[br]Methicillin-resistant Staph Aureus.

0:02:42.252,0:02:44.030
This one scares me.

0:02:44.031,0:02:45.867
What about tuberculosis--

0:02:45.868,0:02:47.903
multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis

0:02:47.904,0:02:51.201
and extensively[br]drug-resistant tuberculosis.

0:02:51.202,0:02:52.535
They're out there.

0:02:52.536,0:02:54.403
These infections are very scary

0:02:54.404,0:02:56.819
and they may take one of your loved ones.

0:02:56.820,0:02:59.483
Or, God forbid, they'll take you.

0:02:59.501,0:03:02.925
C. diff, Clostridium difficile--

0:03:02.926,0:03:05.625
this one attacks [br]the weakest of the patients,

0:03:05.626,0:03:08.894
the elderly and the very, very young.

0:03:08.895,0:03:13.731
Well, before we all get bummed out,[br]there have to be some good guys.

0:03:13.732,0:03:16.515
There have to be.

0:03:16.516,0:03:20.919
My training is soil microbiology[br]so I love dirt.

0:03:20.920,0:03:24.106
Especially the dirt in my garden.

0:03:24.107,0:03:27.416
This used to be my son's swing set,[br]but when he got too big,

0:03:27.417,0:03:30.500
and the swing set started getting[br]tippy, I said, "You know what?

0:03:30.515,0:03:32.914
It's going to be a garden box."

0:03:32.915,0:03:38.054
Soil bacteria, soil fungi, they are[br]natural antibiotic producers.

0:03:38.055,0:03:40.459
This is one avenue to explore.

0:03:40.460,0:03:43.989
How about we start looking[br]at more soil samples

0:03:43.990,0:03:48.963
on Mars, or other extraterrestrial places?

0:03:48.964,0:03:51.269
Places even on Earth,

0:03:51.270,0:03:55.099
slopes of volcanoes[br]where bacteria recolonize.

0:03:55.100,0:03:57.941
I'm up for that, I'm totally[br]going to volunteer.

0:03:57.942,0:04:01.629
This is cool, this is sci-fi,[br]this is Star Trek.

0:04:01.630,0:04:05.990
How about we use viruses[br]that attack bacteria

0:04:05.991,0:04:09.041
to do the dirty work for us?

0:04:09.042,0:04:13.233
The T-even bacteriophages,[br]one of my favorites is T4.

0:04:13.234,0:04:16.216
The "even" stands for the even number.

0:04:16.216,0:04:19.491
What they do is they attack bacteria

0:04:19.492,0:04:23.221
and kill them, without antibiotics.

0:04:23.222,0:04:28.709
This technology has been around,[br]believe it or not, since the 1930s.

0:04:28.710,0:04:31.937
It was discovered in France[br]by a microbiologist.

0:04:31.938,0:04:36.722
The technology was advanced[br]to clinical applications in the 1950s.

0:04:36.723,0:04:38.229
But there's a catch.

0:04:38.230,0:04:41.093
This was behind the former Iron Curtain.

0:04:41.094,0:04:45.474
This was in Russia, and Poland,[br]and the original Georgia.

0:04:45.475,0:04:47.591
Not our Georgia.

0:04:47.592,0:04:50.493
This technology is very effective.

0:04:50.494,0:04:53.493
What if pharmaceutical companies

0:04:53.494,0:04:58.933
could maybe advance the technology[br]to treat a patient with a virus,

0:04:58.934,0:05:02.201
instead of an antibiotic[br]or another type of drug?

0:05:02.202,0:05:04.223
There's a lot of philosophy.

0:05:04.224,0:05:08.476
Viruses, most people think,[br]are bad or terrible or the bad guys.

0:05:08.477,0:05:12.751
But the enemy of my enemy[br]is my friend, right?

0:05:12.752,0:05:14.739
Well, not so fast.

0:05:14.740,0:05:17.471
Sometimes, the technology does go awry,

0:05:17.472,0:05:21.008
and the viruses will carry genes[br]that we don't understand.

0:05:21.009,0:05:22.619
So, I told you I like Star Trek.

0:05:22.620,0:05:25.289
["The enemy of my enemy is[br]the one I shall kill last."]

0:05:25.290,0:05:26.722
It could happen.

0:05:26.723,0:05:31.469
Think of all the wonderful,[br]spicy cuisines that we love:

0:05:32.500,0:05:35.959
Thai food, Indian food,

0:05:35.960,0:05:39.459
Vietnamese, Cambodian, Eastern European,

0:05:39.460,0:05:43.525
West African, Caribbean, Tex Mex.

0:05:43.526,0:05:46.001
Yay, Taco Tuesday!

0:05:46.002,0:05:48.060
When you look at all[br]of the herbs and spices

0:05:48.061,0:05:51.869
that have been studied,[br]but only by anecdotal evidence:

0:05:51.870,0:05:57.134
turmeric, and peppers, and onions,[br]and garlic, and lemon grass,

0:05:57.135,0:06:02.443
and allspice, and cinnamon,[br]and coffee, and tea,

0:06:02.444,0:06:03.938
and beer.

0:06:03.939,0:06:05.254
Yay!

0:06:05.255,0:06:07.239
(Laughter)

0:06:07.240,0:06:10.586
What would happen if more people[br]grew their own food?

0:06:11.557,0:06:15.450
I garden a lot at home,[br]with my son and my partner.

0:06:15.451,0:06:19.609
And all of these produce[br]came from our garden.

0:06:19.610,0:06:21.985
No, you can't have any, I ate it already.

0:06:21.986,0:06:23.487
But I'll trade you.

0:06:23.488,0:06:25.279
What have you got to trade?

0:06:25.280,0:06:28.825
We make beer, we make cheese,[br]we have chickens.

0:06:28.826,0:06:29.931
They're awesome.

0:06:29.932,0:06:32.654
Our little miniature dinosaurs.

0:06:32.662,0:06:36.520
What about encouraging young scientists[br]to work on science fair projects

0:06:36.521,0:06:41.981
that might advance one tiny field[br]of this type of research?

0:06:41.982,0:06:44.784
So, when your child comes home,

0:06:44.785,0:06:49.466
and they have their first[br]science project assignment ...

0:06:49.467,0:06:51.074
Oh, God.

0:06:52.245,0:06:53.967
Put a smile on your face.

0:06:53.968,0:06:56.696
Stock up on those art supplies,[br]stock up on that alcohol,

0:06:56.697,0:07:01.069
and say, "Yes, honey, we can do this!"

0:07:01.070,0:07:05.009
My son's first project is due in January.

0:07:05.010,0:07:06.838
Oh, please help me.

0:07:08.189,0:07:12.480
When we went to Hawaii in February,[br]we really did go to a science fair.

0:07:12.500,0:07:16.227
So look, even school children[br]in Hawaii do science fair projects.

0:07:16.228,0:07:18.839
How bad would that be?

0:07:18.840,0:07:21.254
Some of them were really, really good.

0:07:21.255,0:07:23.385
You'll like this one.

0:07:23.386,0:07:24.724
There's an anthropologist,

0:07:24.724,0:07:27.474
an American anthropologist [br]called Jeff Leach.

0:07:27.474,0:07:31.120
And after his daughter was[br]diagnosed with Type I Diabetes,

0:07:31.121,0:07:34.981
he moved to Tanzania, and he went native,

0:07:34.982,0:07:37.621
living with a hunter-gatherer tribe.

0:07:37.622,0:07:41.258
He ate what they ate--lots and lots[br]of fresh fruit and vegetables;

0:07:41.259,0:07:44.729
lots and lots of roots [br]that they had gathered.

0:07:44.730,0:07:46.266
Not a whole lot of protein,

0:07:46.267,0:07:49.859
unless that had hunted[br]and killed on that particular day.

0:07:49.860,0:07:52.120
You also eat a lot of dirt

0:07:52.120,0:07:54.730
when you consume [br]fruit and vegetable material.

0:07:54.730,0:07:56.997
But what he found in the year

0:07:56.998,0:08:01.167
when he was taking[br]stool samples and blood samples,

0:08:01.168,0:08:05.474
was that in humans, with a higher rate[br]of intestinal worm infections,

0:08:05.475,0:08:09.654
they have a lower rate of inflammatory[br]and autoimmune diseases,

0:08:09.667,0:08:12.541
like diabetes, like Crohn's Disease,

0:08:12.542,0:08:16.612
like celiac, like irritable bowel,[br]like rheumatoid arthritis.

0:08:16.613,0:08:19.785
Now, I'm not saying go out[br]and eat dirt and eat worms,

0:08:19.792,0:08:22.203
unless that's what you're into.

0:08:22.204,0:08:26.690
But what if some aspect[br]of the parasitic worms,

0:08:26.709,0:08:31.157
like tapeworms and hook worms,[br]was actually beneficial to our health?

0:08:31.158,0:08:33.543
Because the immune system is so busy

0:08:33.544,0:08:36.133
modulating and controlling[br]the worm infection,

0:08:36.134,0:08:38.284
that is doesn't have time to pay attention

0:08:38.284,0:08:41.196
to the inflammation[br]elsewhere in our bodies.

0:08:41.197,0:08:43.388
His project is called[br]The Human Food Project.

0:08:43.389,0:08:46.020
He's got another one [br]that you might be interested in,

0:08:46.021,0:08:48.031
so Google it on break.

0:08:48.032,0:08:51.031
It's called The American Gut Project.

0:08:51.032,0:08:53.085
And for a small fee,

0:08:54.236,0:08:58.495
from anywhere from $99 to $10,000,

0:08:58.496,0:09:03.041
you can send in [br]a fecal sample for testing.

0:09:03.042,0:09:06.860
And he'll even do [br]fecal samples from your dog,

0:09:06.861,0:09:11.465
to study the American human gut, [br]and dog gut as well.

0:09:11.470,0:09:13.211
Tempting.

0:09:13.212,0:09:15.319
I saved the best for last.

0:09:16.542,0:09:20.904
FMT: Fecal Mass Transplantation.

0:09:20.905,0:09:25.251
This is used in 2013, the United States

0:09:25.252,0:09:28.971
approved this for treatment of C. diff.

0:09:28.972,0:09:30.732
It actually works.

0:09:30.733,0:09:34.857
When you take [br]healthy donor fecal material,

0:09:34.858,0:09:38.337
and you transplant it into a recipient,

0:09:38.338,0:09:41.729
they have a better than 90% chance

0:09:41.730,0:09:45.459
of recovery from their C. diff infection.

0:09:45.460,0:09:47.745
It sound really gross.

0:09:47.747,0:09:50.516
Because here's what you do.

0:09:50.517,0:09:52.066
(Laughter)

0:09:55.436,0:09:58.224
You can make a frozen poo pill,

0:09:59.175,0:10:03.488
as long as the material has been[br]screened and freed of parasites;

0:10:03.489,0:10:06.272
you can receive it by an endoscope;

0:10:06.273,0:10:08.692
you can receive it by an enema.

0:10:08.693,0:10:11.803
[How about a big bowl of "Poop Soup"?]

0:10:11.804,0:10:13.359
(Laughter)

0:10:15.458,0:10:19.534
This technology has been around[br]since the 4th or 5th century in China.

0:10:19.535,0:10:22.597
There are recipes online for yellow soup.

0:10:22.597,0:10:24.918
Last night, I went online[br]and did some research.

0:10:24.919,0:10:27.171
There are Pinterest pins,

0:10:27.171,0:10:28.522
(Laughter)

0:10:29.949,0:10:32.142
for do-it-yourself at home.

0:10:32.143,0:10:33.590
(Laughter)

0:10:38.209,0:10:40.242
There are recipes.

0:10:41.883,0:10:43.240
I haven't tried it yet.

0:10:43.241,0:10:48.090
It's on my list for 2017.

0:10:48.771,0:10:50.120
(Laughter)

0:10:50.121,0:10:51.883
No, I haven't tried it.

0:10:51.884,0:10:55.073
But what if, what if,

0:10:55.074,0:10:58.223
your loved one [br]has exhausted all the options?

0:10:58.224,0:11:01.165
Antibiotics are not working,[br]they've had multiple surgeries.

0:11:01.166,0:11:04.194
They're depressed, they're[br]in the hospital, they're losing hope.

0:11:04.195,0:11:08.425
What if something this simple

0:11:08.426,0:11:10.985
could actually help them?

0:11:10.986,0:11:13.459
I'd do it. I'd do it in a heartbeat.

0:11:13.460,0:11:18.788
I hope that with this very short talk[br]I have stimulated your imagination

0:11:18.789,0:11:23.109
to at least learn more,[br]read more, find out more.

0:11:23.110,0:11:25.918
Antibiotic therapy [br]won't always be with us.

0:11:25.919,0:11:28.919
But there are other avenues to explore.

0:11:28.920,0:11:30.559
Yeah, I've read all those books.

0:11:30.560,0:11:33.231
That's not my nightstand, I promise.

0:11:33.232,0:11:34.641
But people look at you funny

0:11:34.642,0:11:36.280
when you're waiting at an airport

0:11:36.281,0:11:38.260
to get on a plane for a flight somewhere,

0:11:38.261,0:11:41.165
and you have one[br]of these books in your hand.

0:11:41.166,0:11:44.505
But then you mention that you heard[br]about it on NPR Science Friday,

0:11:44.506,0:11:46.235
and then it's all good.

0:11:46.236,0:11:48.278
It's all good, they're happy with you.

0:11:48.290,0:11:51.184
Anyway, thank you for your kind attention.

0:11:51.185,0:11:52.527
(Applause)