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Good morning, Vienna.

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Okay, many cultures use[br]the expression 'night and day'

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to describe opposites[br]that are somehow surprising:

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Twins that behave completely differently[br]despite that they look the same;

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someone who's drastically[br]changed their behaviour,

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perhaps going from drinking[br]way too much to nothing at all.

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'It's like night and day'.

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Of course when we say this,[br]it's actually a metaphor

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that refers to the stunning transformation

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that the Earth goes through[br]every day as it rotates on its axis,

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alternately sampling[br]warmer light environments

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and darker cold ones.

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It's like night and day, there's nothing[br]as different from night than day.

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And we pass between these two states[br]every single day without exception.

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Evolution is all about developing[br]adaptations to special environments

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through genetic change.

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And so it stands to reason evolution[br]has given us a mechanism

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to deal with this special environment,[br]a mechanism embedded in our genes,

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and a mechanism that actually samples[br]and tastes the environment

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that's alternating[br]with high predictability.

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And that mechanism[br]is the biological clock,

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or the circadian clock.

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So what is the circadian clock[br]and what does it do for us?

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One of the most impressive[br]examples that I know about

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are experiments[br]that take people like you or me

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and put them into a time-free environment.

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A subject goes into[br]a specially designed apartment,

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usually just a single room,

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that has no access to information[br]from the outside world.

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So there's no clock on the wall,[br]there's no window

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and there's no noise[br]from outside activities.

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In this situation, a subject lives[br]not with a precise 24-hour rhythm,

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they don't maintain that,

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but they go to a circa-24-hour rhythm[br]in sleep-wake behaviour, for instance.

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They basically sleep and wake[br]with the same interval every day,

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but it's a little bit less than 24 hours[br]or a little bit more than 24 hours,

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so it's a persistent oscillation[br]in our behaviour

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in the absense of daily time cues.

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And this is called the circadian rhythm.

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With the word 'circadian'[br]coming from the Latin

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for 'about a day'.

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So -

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so I think about how this works,

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that you have no information from outside[br]and you still can do this quite reliably

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in constant conditions.

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This is what we mean by an internal clock,[br]a biological clock or a circadian clock.

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So it's an alarm clock[br]that's built into our heads

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that's telling us when to wake up.

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And then I have to say that[br]I've been studying the circadian clock

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for over 20 years now,

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and I still am incredibly[br]impressed and amazed,

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and it's still almost unbelievable to me

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that we, who are so complex[br]and strong-willed in our behaviours,

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show this persistent,[br]self-sustained circadian rhythm

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in sleeping and waking, for instance,[br]and in many other things also.

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But I've seen so many examples[br]of this 24-hour timing mechanism

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in bacteria and fungi and plants[br]and humans and other animals

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that there's no question in my mind[br]that it's a fundamental part of biology.

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So as you probably know,

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experiments that put humans[br]or any other living organism

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into a time-free environment[br]like I just described

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are actually highly artificial,

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and they actually never[br]really happen in real life.

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And you also probably know[br]that your sleep-wake cycle

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is actually, on average, exactly 24 hours.

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This process of adjustment[br]of this circa-24-hour rhythm

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to exactly 24 hours is called[br]circadian entrainment,

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and for our sleep-wake behaviour

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it's mediated by specialised cells[br]in our retina that sense light.

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The biological clock, however,

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is built of many more cells than just[br]a few cells in the eye or the brain.

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Basically, all of our cells[br]are oscillating.

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What do these cellular[br]oscillations look like?

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Well, we can measure oscillations[br]in RNA levels, for instance.

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The genes express your RNA levels[br]in individual cells,

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and you see here a tracing of cells

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that are carrying on[br]for five or six or seven days

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in constant conditions.

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So about ten percent[br]of the genes in any given cell

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are expressed with a circadian rhythm.

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Of these, some of the proteins[br]will also be rhythmic,

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and metabolism will become rhythmic also.

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And so you get a network[br]of oscillations in each cell

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that eventually come together

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so that you get higher functions[br]that are also rhythmic.

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Now, these cellular oscillations[br]are generally not entrained by light;

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light entrainness is unique to cells[br]emanating from the eye, in the eye,

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or connected to the eye, those cells.

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These peripheral cells, in general,

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will entrain to cycles[br]in our body temperature,

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so our temperature is one to two degrees[br]higher at the end of the afternoon

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than it is at the end of the night.

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So now you should start[br]to get a picture of the circadian clock

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in a human, for instance.

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It's all kinds of oscillating cells -

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really, literally, all kinds[br]of cells that are oscillating.

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They're responding to various time cues:

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light, temperature,

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also nutritional status[br]and hormone levels, for instance,

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and then they come together[br]to regulate many, many processes.

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So cognitive performance changes[br]over the course of the day.

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The perception of pain[br]peaks in the evening.

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Physical performance like grip strength[br]peaks mid-afternoon,

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and components of our blood

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like the metabolic state of cells[br]or hormone levels

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is also circulating with predictable[br]rhythms over the course of the day.

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Andre Gide wrote[br]a wonderfully perceptive sentence:

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'... if I were not there[br]to make them acquainted,

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my morning's self[br]would not know my evening's.'

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This is really perfect -[br]we are different people, night and day.

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So, what does this mean[br]for us in everyday life?

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The circadian clock regulates[br]the timing of our behaviour.

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It determines our chronotype.

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Chronotype is measured[br]by asking people when they sleep

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on a free day with no obligations.

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And like many behaviours,[br]it shows a distribution.

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You get a few people who are sleeping[br]very early in the day;

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you get most people who are sleeping[br]at similar times to each other;

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and then you get some people[br]who are sleeping quite late.

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(Laughter)

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And yes, you can see[br]that teenagers and young adults

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are disproportionately represented[br]in this late population.

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They sleep much later[br]than young children and older adults.

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That makes me think back[br]to actually what Gide wrote

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about being different people[br]morning and evening

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and I think that this explains[br]a lot of the conflict

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between parents and teenagers -

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that basically, the timing[br]of their behaviours is totally misaligned,

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that's all it is.

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(Laughter)

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Okay, so ...

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So I told you about age[br]and how that regulates chronotype,

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and so think about this also,[br]that as you go through life, then,

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you naturally pass through[br]a series of chronotypes

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going from early to late[br]and then early again, okay?

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So what else regulates chronotype,[br]or the timing of our behaviour?

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One of the answers is genes.

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And the most compelling -[br]not the most compelling, excuse me -

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the first data that informed us[br]about the genes

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that are involved[br]in regulating the circadian clock

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came from fruit flies,

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and we now have a lot of genes[br]that regulate the circadian clock

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in isolated human cells.

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Interestingly, when we look[br]at humans themselves,

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it's much more difficult to figure out

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which genes are involved[br]in regulating chronotype.

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The most compelling examples[br]come from large family pedigrees

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where an extreme chronotype[br]is inherited as a dominant trait.

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However, the DNA sequences[br]responsible for those traits

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are actually not found[br]in the general population,

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so my conclusion from these observations

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is that the genes that are involved[br]in regulating chronotype

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are actually many,

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with each having individual small effects[br]in the general population at least,

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and therefore very hard to track[br]by standard genetics methods.

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Another way that the chronotype[br]is regulated is with light.

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So I mentioned that the clock is designed[br]to actually sample the environment,

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so perhaps it's not surprising[br]that it actually checks in

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and uses some of the information[br]from the environment.

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So, how do we know that this is so?

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If you live in a higher light environment[br]compared to a lower light environment -

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so someone who gets outside compared[br]to someone who's inside all the time -

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you'll generally have an earlier[br]chronotype vs. a later one, respectively.

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If you live in the eastern part[br]of a time zone like in Vienna

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compared to the western part[br]of the time zone,

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you'll have an earlier[br]vs. a later chronotype,

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and of course this is because[br]we express chronotype as local time,

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whereas your clock is reading sun time.

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There's some evidence[br]that we entrain differently

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in the summer -[br]that's earlier in the summer -

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than in the winter,[br]where we entrain later.

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It might also help you[br]to think about jet lag

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to understand intuitively[br]how light feeds into the clock.

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So with jet lag[br]you've flown across time zones,

0:10:06.664,0:10:09.109
and it takes a really[br]surprisingly long time

0:10:09.109,0:10:12.989
to readjust to the new time,[br]and you feel really bad in the process

0:10:12.989,0:10:17.210
as your clock is running ahead[br]or lagging behind

0:10:17.210,0:10:18.978
of the new sun time.

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Eventually you find a relatively stable[br]phase of circadian entrainment

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that's consistent for your chronotype[br]in your new environment.

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You feel better; you can sleep again;[br]and you get your energy back.

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So, what are the implications[br]about all of this for you

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in your everyday life?

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First of all, I think it's pretty clear

0:10:47.804,0:10:52.540
that you will have a fundamentally[br]different circadian clock,

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and therefore chronotype,[br]from your neighbours.

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So you have different genes,[br]you have a different age,

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and you have a different life history.

0:11:01.829,0:11:04.149
I want to do a little experiment here.

0:11:04.391,0:11:06.329
I want to let you understand that

0:11:06.329,0:11:08.389
by actually comparing yourself to others,

0:11:08.389,0:11:12.310
which is actually a really good way[br]to make people understand this quickly,

0:11:12.310,0:11:16.781
so I'm going to ask you to raise your hand[br]and tell us, and report to us,

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when you prefer to go to sleep[br]on a free day with no social obligations.

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Okay?

0:11:22.223,0:11:24.658
So who goes to bed before midnight?

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Okay, look around and see[br]how many hands are up.

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How about midnight to 1:00?

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1:00 to 2:00?

0:11:37.671,0:11:39.082
2:00 to 3:00?

0:11:40.469,0:11:41.879
(Laughter)

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And after 3:00?

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There should be[br]some people here after 3:00.

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So you've just reconstructed[br]the chronotype distribution

0:11:50.590,0:11:52.462
right here in this room.

0:11:52.462,0:11:54.671
So now you see how it works.

0:11:55.650,0:12:01.102
I recently came across a dramatic story[br]concerning chronotype.

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This is a picture of the famous[br]castle Neuschwanstein.

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It was built by Ludwig II,

0:12:07.412,0:12:11.727
who became the king of Bavaria[br]in 1864 at the age of 18.

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Twenty-two years later[br]he was forcibly removed from the throne

0:12:16.304,0:12:17.712
when he was pronounced insane

0:12:17.712,0:12:21.184
by a board of psychiatrists[br]who had never examined him.

0:12:23.082,0:12:26.671
Ludwig may have had some troubles[br]in the mental health department -

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I think no one can know[br]for sure; it's history.

0:12:30.501,0:12:31.582
What we do know

0:12:31.582,0:12:34.661
is that despite some considerable[br]popularity with his subjects,

0:12:34.661,0:12:37.131
the government was deeply disturbed

0:12:37.131,0:12:40.232
that through his palaces[br]and castles that he was building,

0:12:40.232,0:12:43.256
he was pushing the state[br]to the brink of bankruptcy.

0:12:43.851,0:12:46.105
They wanted him out.

0:12:46.972,0:12:50.322
When I read a bit more[br]about the daily life of Ludwig,

0:12:50.322,0:12:53.922
I became suspicious[br]of the diagnosis of mental illness.

0:12:55.328,0:12:57.842
Certainly, he wasn't coping[br]very well in general,

0:12:58.181,0:13:00.773
and he practised[br]some eccentric behaviours,

0:13:01.433,0:13:05.572
but the most specific description[br]concerned the timing of his behaviour.

0:13:05.572,0:13:08.481
He ordered breakfast[br]at 6:00 in the evening,

0:13:08.481,0:13:10.083
lunch at midnight,

0:13:10.083,0:13:11.602
and dinner in the early morning

0:13:11.602,0:13:14.431
before retiring to bed[br]to sleep through the day.

0:13:15.033,0:13:19.313
Very rarely one finds[br]a reversed chronotype like Ludwig had.

0:13:20.479,0:13:24.046
He seems indeed to have been[br]most relaxed at Schloss Linderhof here,

0:13:24.046,0:13:25.772
where he famously was riding around

0:13:25.772,0:13:28.622
in his sleigh through the night[br]around the grounds.

0:13:29.122,0:13:31.083
In contrast,

0:13:31.083,0:13:36.302
his official duties would have taken place[br]during the daylight hours,

0:13:36.302,0:13:38.993
which was unfortunately[br]during his night time.

0:13:39.423,0:13:43.563
Think about how you would feel[br]if you had to negotiate anything

0:13:43.563,0:13:45.763
in the middle of your night.

0:13:47.923,0:13:52.034
Ludwig found himself negotiating[br]the independence of Bavaria

0:13:52.034,0:13:54.611
in the middle of his night,[br]and he lost it.

0:13:55.133,0:13:59.022
This misstep essentially[br]created the German Empire.

0:14:00.233,0:14:03.293
(Laughter)

0:14:05.633,0:14:11.023
I find myself wondering[br]if the chronotype of Ludwig II

0:14:11.023,0:14:13.020
changed the history of the world.

0:14:13.424,0:14:14.712
(Laughter)

0:14:15.914,0:14:18.153
That's of course impossible to say,

0:14:18.443,0:14:22.064
but extreme examples like this[br]are very useful for making a point,

0:14:22.654,0:14:25.803
and the point here[br]is that like other living creatures,

0:14:25.803,0:14:28.523
we have our own[br]individual circadian clock

0:14:28.523,0:14:31.891
that in combination with our age[br]and our light exposure

0:14:31.891,0:14:34.134
will make us a certain chronotype.

0:14:37.093,0:14:40.211
Our clock directs[br]the timing of our behaviour.

0:14:41.463,0:14:43.883
Our chronotype is so strong

0:14:43.883,0:14:48.193
that it sometimes isolates us[br]like it did Ludwig II.

0:14:48.521,0:14:50.433
It does this in small ways.

0:14:50.433,0:14:53.854
When we want to be with someone[br]who has a different chronotype,

0:14:53.854,0:14:58.862
maybe we feel like doing something[br]that they don't feel like doing.

0:15:00.681,0:15:02.113
Our chronotype is so strong

0:15:02.113,0:15:05.244
that sometimes we have to modify it[br]with an alarm clock,

0:15:06.923,0:15:09.723
otherwise we might get in trouble[br]with work or school.

0:15:10.803,0:15:12.693
Both of these scenarios are suboptimal.

0:15:12.693,0:15:17.925
One of them results[br]in social relationships that suffer,

0:15:17.925,0:15:21.604
and the other results in sleep deprivation

0:15:21.972,0:15:25.654
as a result of the clash[br]of the biological and the social clock;

0:15:25.654,0:15:28.324
this is a condition[br]we call social jet lag.

0:15:28.324,0:15:32.023
And sleep deprivation is known[br]to lead to a variety of problems

0:15:32.023,0:15:34.742
ranging from poor performance to illness.

0:15:36.614,0:15:41.002
Is there anything, then, that you can do[br]to fine-tune your chronotype

0:15:41.002,0:15:44.292
so that you can have more harmonious time[br]with family and friends,

0:15:44.292,0:15:46.782
and you can lose less sleep to your work?

0:15:47.044,0:15:49.863
Can you unshackle yourself[br]from your clock?

0:15:50.173,0:15:52.923
The answer is: almost certainly.

0:15:53.823,0:15:56.470
If you think back to what I said[br]regulates chronotype -

0:15:56.470,0:16:00.023
that would be genes, light and age -

0:16:00.023,0:16:02.700
two of those things[br]you can't change overnight.

0:16:02.700,0:16:04.924
But light is something[br]that we can work with.

0:16:04.924,0:16:08.595
It's easy to find, it's cheap[br]and it's not unpleasant.

0:16:09.636,0:16:13.375
So the only problem is[br]that we don't have very good prescriptions

0:16:13.375,0:16:16.443
for how light will interact[br]with your specific chronotype,

0:16:16.443,0:16:19.833
because remember, you have[br]a unique collection of clock genes

0:16:19.833,0:16:21.811
that we don't really understand yet,

0:16:21.811,0:16:24.225
so we don't know[br]how they would react to light.

0:16:24.225,0:16:26.596
There is a general rule[br]that most people, however,

0:16:26.596,0:16:28.926
if they increase the light[br]they get in the morning

0:16:28.926,0:16:31.126
and decrease the light[br]they get in the evening,

0:16:31.126,0:16:33.243
for instance, from computers[br]and televisions,

0:16:33.243,0:16:36.455
that they will tend to move earlier[br]in their chronotype

0:16:36.455,0:16:39.147
and therefore have to use[br]their alarm clock less.

0:16:39.933,0:16:41.027
Okay?

0:16:44.097,0:16:48.354
Okay, 80 percent of you out there[br]are alarm clock users.

0:16:49.523,0:16:53.781
This should remind you every single day[br]that you have a circadian clock.

0:16:54.566,0:16:57.746
Your clock is showing itself[br]in your individual cells;

0:16:57.746,0:17:02.288
it's showing itself in your family[br]and in your community.

0:17:04.022,0:17:08.265
Despite the alarm clock,[br]which I hope you'll use now much less,

0:17:09.247,0:17:13.861
the circadian clock is a wonderful[br]addition to our poor existence.

0:17:14.498,0:17:17.348
It gives us more versions of ourselves.

0:17:17.348,0:17:20.778
We are, after all, different people[br]morning and evening.

0:17:21.188,0:17:22.558
Get to know you.

0:17:24.117,0:17:27.328
And since I'm a scientist,[br]I have to acknowledge my dear colleagues,

0:17:27.328,0:17:31.539
because no scientist stands up here alone[br]without a huge team behind them.

0:17:31.539,0:17:33.639
Maria and David who are here today,

0:17:33.639,0:17:37.228
Till Roenneberg who's rewritten the book[br]on human behaviour,

0:17:37.228,0:17:38.469
and many chronobiologists,

0:17:38.469,0:17:42.087
and please do discover your chronotype[br]at this web address: [www.euclock.org]

0:17:42.087,0:17:43.243
Thank you very much.

0:17:43.243,0:17:44.954
(Applause)