0:00:18.982,0:00:21.812
I want to talk about two planets

0:00:21.832,0:00:24.685
the title is really,[br]"A tale of two planets" -

0:00:24.705,0:00:26.122
Earth and Mars.

0:00:26.143,0:00:30.880
I want to talk about[br]4.6 billion years of history

0:00:30.901,0:00:32.404
in 18 minutes.

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That's 300 million years per minute.

0:00:35.987,0:00:38.046
Let's begin the talk.

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Let's start with the first photograph[br]NASA obtained

0:00:44.600,0:00:46.599
of planet Mars.

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This is fly-by, Mariner IV.

0:00:48.600,0:00:51.205
It was taken in 1965.

0:00:52.200,0:00:54.199
When this picture appeared,

0:00:54.200,0:00:57.199
that well-known scientific journal,

0:00:57.200,0:01:00.199
The New York Times,[br]wrote in its editorial,

0:01:00.200,0:01:02.199
"Mars is uninteresting.

0:01:02.200,0:01:05.199
It's a dead world.[br]NASA should not spend

0:01:05.220,0:01:08.860
any time or effort studying Mars anymore."

0:01:08.906,0:01:11.169
Fortunately, our leaders in Washington

0:01:11.200,0:01:13.199
at NASA headquarters knew better

0:01:13.200,0:01:16.420
and we began a very extensive study

0:01:17.041,0:01:19.040
of the red planet.

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One of the key questions[br]in all of science,

0:01:22.700,0:01:24.931
"Is there life outside of Earth?"

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I believe that Mars[br]is the most likely target

0:01:28.985,0:01:30.701
for life outside the Earth.

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I'm going to show you in a few minutes

0:01:32.787,0:01:35.352
some amazing measurements that suggest

0:01:35.400,0:01:37.399
there may be life on Mars.

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But let me start with a Viking photograph.

0:01:40.447,0:01:44.584
This is a composite[br]taken by Viking in 1976.

0:01:44.741,0:01:49.042
Viking was developed and managed

0:01:49.600,0:01:51.579
at the NASA Langley Research Center.

0:01:51.600,0:01:55.920
We sent two orbiters and two landers[br]in the summer of 1976.

0:01:56.139,0:01:59.482
We had four spacecraft, two around Mars,

0:01:59.600,0:02:01.545
two on the surface -

0:02:01.568,0:02:03.331
an amazing accomplishment.

0:02:03.361,0:02:05.579
This is the first photograph taken

0:02:05.600,0:02:07.599
from the surface of any planet.

0:02:07.600,0:02:09.598
This is a Viking Lander photograph

0:02:09.600,0:02:11.599
of the surface of Mars.

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And yes, the red planet is red.

0:02:16.400,0:02:18.839
Mars is half the size of the Earth,

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but because two-thirds[br]of the Earth is covered by water,

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the land area on Mars

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is comparable to the land area on Earth.

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So, Mars is a pretty big place[br]even though it's half the size.

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We have obtained topographic measurements

0:02:34.626,0:02:36.221
of the surface of Mars.

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We understand the elevation differences.

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We know a lot about Mars.

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Mars has the largest volcano[br]in the solar system,

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Olympus Mons.

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Mars has the Grand Canyon

0:02:49.400,0:02:52.399
of the solar system, Valles Marineris.

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Very, very interesting planet.

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Mars has the largest

0:02:57.380,0:02:59.379
impact crater in the solar system,

0:02:59.925,0:03:01.399
Hellas Basin.

0:03:01.400,0:03:03.399
This is 2,000 miles across.

0:03:03.949,0:03:05.399
If you happened to be on Mars

0:03:05.400,0:03:07.399
when this impactor hit,

0:03:07.400,0:03:09.399
it was a really bad day on Mars.

0:03:09.739,0:03:11.399
(Laughter)

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This is Olympus Mons.

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This is bigger than the state of Arizona.

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Volcanoes are important, because volcanoes

0:03:20.020,0:03:22.999
produce atmospheres[br]and they produce oceans.

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We're looking at Valles Marineris,

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the largest canyon in the solar system,

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superimposed on a map[br]of the United States,

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3,000 miles across.

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One of the most intriguing features[br]about Mars,

0:03:37.100,0:03:39.099
the National Academy of Science says

0:03:39.100,0:03:42.738
one of the 10 major mysteries[br]of the space age,

0:03:42.800,0:03:45.214
is why certain areas of Mars

0:03:45.244,0:03:47.243
are so highly magnetized.

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We call this crustal magnetism.

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There are regions on Mars, where,[br]for some reason -

0:03:52.363,0:03:54.960
we don't understand why at this point -

0:03:54.996,0:03:57.995
the surface is very,[br]very highly magnetized.

0:03:58.016,0:04:00.016
Crustal magnetism.

0:04:03.180,0:04:04.903
Is there water on Mars?

0:04:04.924,0:04:07.923
The answer is no, there is no liquid water

0:04:07.945,0:04:09.944
on the surface of Mars today.

0:04:09.965,0:04:12.292
But there is intriguing evidence

0:04:12.332,0:04:15.199
that suggests[br]that in early history of Mars

0:04:15.200,0:04:17.500
there may have been rivers

0:04:17.524,0:04:20.199
and fast flowing water.

0:04:20.200,0:04:22.199
Today Mars is very very dry.

0:04:22.200,0:04:25.829
We believe there's some water[br]in the polar caps,

0:04:25.850,0:04:28.572
there are polar caps[br]of North Pole and South Pole.

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Here are some recent images.

0:04:30.600,0:04:33.123
This is from Spirit and Opportunity.

0:04:33.144,0:04:35.498
These images that show at one time,

0:04:35.552,0:04:39.188
there was very fast flowing water[br]on the surface of Mars.

0:04:39.234,0:04:42.220
Why is water important?[br]Water is important

0:04:42.258,0:04:45.258
because if you want life[br]you have to have water.

0:04:45.456,0:04:47.572
Water is the key ingredient

0:04:47.600,0:04:51.302
in the evolution,[br]the origin of life on a planet.

0:04:51.905,0:04:54.096
Here is some picture of Antarctica

0:04:54.120,0:04:56.599
and a picture of Olympus Mons,

0:04:56.600,0:04:58.599
very similar features, glaciers.

0:04:59.200,0:05:01.199
So, this is frozen water.

0:05:01.200,0:05:03.622
This is ice water on Mars.

0:05:03.707,0:05:07.427
This is my favorite picture.[br]This was just taken a few weeks ago.

0:05:07.448,0:05:09.379
It has not been seen publicly.

0:05:09.400,0:05:12.041
This is European space agency

0:05:12.062,0:05:15.279
Mars Express, image of a crater on Mars

0:05:15.378,0:05:17.081
and in the middle of the crater

0:05:17.102,0:05:20.101
we have liquid water, we have ice.

0:05:20.600,0:05:22.599
Very intriguing photograph.

0:05:24.586,0:05:28.379
We now believe[br]that in the early history of Mars,

0:05:28.400,0:05:31.399
which is 4.6 billion years ago,

0:05:31.400,0:05:35.501
4.6 billion years ago,[br]Mars was very Earth-like.

0:05:36.000,0:05:38.686
Mars had rivers, Mars had lakes,

0:05:38.707,0:05:42.726
but more important[br]Mars had planetary-scale oceans.

0:05:43.000,0:05:46.537
We believe that the oceans[br]were in the northern hemisphere,

0:05:46.579,0:05:48.578
and this area in blue,

0:05:48.659,0:05:51.887
which shows a depression[br]of about four miles,

0:05:51.960,0:05:54.959
was the ancient ocean area

0:05:55.000,0:05:56.605
on the surface of Mars.

0:05:56.635,0:05:59.851
Where did the ocean's worth[br]of water on Mars go?

0:06:00.000,0:06:01.883
Well, we have an idea.

0:06:01.928,0:06:04.927
This is a measurement[br]we obtained a few years ago

0:06:05.000,0:06:08.476
from a Mars-orbiting satellite[br]called Odyssey.

0:06:08.674,0:06:10.944
Sub-surface water on Mars,

0:06:11.000,0:06:13.167
frozen in the form of ice.

0:06:13.269,0:06:16.770
And this shows the percent.[br]If it's a blueish color,

0:06:16.793,0:06:19.463
it means 16 percent by weight.

0:06:19.500,0:06:21.971
Sixteen percent, by weight,[br]of the interior

0:06:22.020,0:06:24.805
contains frozen water, or ice.

0:06:24.826,0:06:27.606
So, there is a lot of water[br]below the surface.

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The most intriguing[br]and puzzling measurement,

0:06:32.519,0:06:35.648
in my opinion, we've obtained of Mars,

0:06:35.800,0:06:38.799
was released earlier this year

0:06:38.800,0:06:41.476
in the magazine Science.

0:06:41.800,0:06:45.945
And what we're looking at[br]is the presence of the gas methane,

0:06:46.410,0:06:49.651
CH4, in the atmosphere of Mars.

0:06:50.228,0:06:53.228
And you can see there are three[br]distinct regions of methane.

0:06:53.800,0:06:55.799
Why is methane important?

0:06:55.800,0:06:57.799
Because on Earth, almost all -

0:06:57.800,0:07:00.799
99.9 percent - of the methane

0:07:00.800,0:07:03.799
is produced by living systems,

0:07:03.800,0:07:07.556
not little green men, but microscopic life

0:07:07.800,0:07:09.893
below the surface or at the surface.

0:07:10.200,0:07:12.199
We now have evidence

0:07:12.200,0:07:15.199
that methane is in the atmosphere of Mars,

0:07:15.200,0:07:17.199
a gas that, on Earth,

0:07:17.200,0:07:19.199
is biogenic in origin,

0:07:19.200,0:07:20.924
produced by living systems.

0:07:24.679,0:07:28.532
These are the three plumes: A, B1, B2.

0:07:29.100,0:07:32.099
And this is the terrain it appears over,

0:07:32.100,0:07:35.099
and we know from geological studies

0:07:35.100,0:07:38.666
that these regions[br]are the oldest regions on Mars.

0:07:38.743,0:07:41.015
In fact, the Earth and Mars

0:07:41.100,0:07:44.100
are both 4.6 billion years old.

0:07:44.631,0:07:48.622
The oldest rock on Earth[br]is only 3.6 billion.

0:07:48.679,0:07:51.678
The reason there is a billion-year gap

0:07:51.702,0:07:53.701
in our geological understanding

0:07:53.742,0:07:55.741
is because of plate tectonics,

0:07:55.762,0:07:58.761
The crust of the Earth has been recycled.

0:07:58.781,0:08:00.781
So the oldest rock on Earth

0:08:02.831,0:08:06.559
is a billion years after the Earth formed.

0:08:06.580,0:08:08.579
We have no geological record prior

0:08:08.600,0:08:10.599
for the first billion years.

0:08:10.600,0:08:12.599
That record exists on Mars.

0:08:12.600,0:08:14.900
And this terrain that we're looking at

0:08:14.948,0:08:17.781
dates back to 4.6 billion years

0:08:18.600,0:08:21.599
when Earth and Mars were formed.

0:08:21.600,0:08:23.599
It was a Tuesday.

0:08:23.600,0:08:25.599
(Laughter)

0:08:25.600,0:08:27.599
This is a map that shows

0:08:27.600,0:08:31.462
where we've put our spacecraft[br]on the surface of Mars.

0:08:31.600,0:08:34.599
Here is Viking I, Viking II.

0:08:34.620,0:08:37.186
This is Opportunity. This is Spirit.

0:08:37.211,0:08:38.948
This is Mars Pathfinder.

0:08:38.969,0:08:41.464
This is Phoenix,[br]we just put two years ago.

0:08:41.779,0:08:45.147
Notice all of our rovers[br]and all of our landers

0:08:45.600,0:08:47.774
have gone to the northern hemisphere.

0:08:48.000,0:08:50.330
That's because the northern hemisphere

0:08:50.351,0:08:52.350
is the region of the ancient

0:08:53.000,0:08:54.440
ocean basin.

0:08:54.461,0:08:56.352
There aren't many craters.

0:08:56.388,0:08:59.574
And that's because the water[br]protected the basin

0:08:59.626,0:09:03.172
from being impacted[br]by asteroids and meteorites.

0:09:04.000,0:09:06.133
But look in the southern hemisphere.

0:09:06.158,0:09:09.109
In the southern hemisphere[br]there are impact craters,

0:09:09.131,0:09:10.601
there are volcanic craters.

0:09:10.622,0:09:12.331
Here's Hellas Basin,

0:09:12.352,0:09:15.351
a very very different place, geologically.

0:09:15.594,0:09:18.487
Look where the methane is,[br]the methane is in a very

0:09:18.508,0:09:20.971
rough terrain area.

0:09:22.356,0:09:24.550
What is the best way to unravel

0:09:24.603,0:09:27.602
the mysteries on Mars that exist?

0:09:28.000,0:09:31.430
We asked this question 10 years ago.

0:09:31.507,0:09:34.867
We invited 10 of the top Mars scientists

0:09:35.000,0:09:38.000
to the Langley Research Center[br]for two days.

0:09:38.285,0:09:40.441
We addressed on the board

0:09:40.467,0:09:43.466
the major questions[br]that have not been answered.

0:09:44.000,0:09:46.568
And we spent two days deciding

0:09:46.589,0:09:49.279
how to best answer this question.

0:09:50.000,0:09:52.787
And the result of our meeting -

0:09:52.814,0:09:57.216
two day meeting, on the best way[br]to solve these questions on Mars -

0:09:57.946,0:10:03.209
was a robotic rocket-powered airplane[br]we call ARES.

0:10:04.018,0:10:08.044
It's an Aerial Regional-scale[br]Environmental Surveyor.

0:10:08.129,0:10:10.337
There's a model of ARES here.

0:10:10.357,0:10:13.212
No speaker has made mention to it before,

0:10:13.232,0:10:16.440
but it's been here[br]since last night when I brought it,

0:10:16.480,0:10:19.168
This is a 20-percent scale model.

0:10:19.189,0:10:23.085
This airplane was designed[br]at the Langley Research Center.

0:10:23.147,0:10:25.146
If any place in the world

0:10:25.167,0:10:27.299
can build an airplane to fly on Mars,

0:10:27.369,0:10:29.368
it's the Langley Research Center,

0:10:29.600,0:10:31.599
for almost 100 years

0:10:31.600,0:10:34.599
a leading center of aeronautics[br]in the world.

0:10:35.200,0:10:37.865
We fly about a mile above the surface.

0:10:37.886,0:10:39.885
We cover hundreds of miles,

0:10:39.938,0:10:42.768
and we fly about 450 miles an hour.

0:10:43.980,0:10:46.979
We can do things that rovers can't do

0:10:47.000,0:10:48.999
and landers can't do:

0:10:49.000,0:10:51.999
We can fly above mountains,[br]volcanoes, impact craters;

0:10:52.000,0:10:53.999
we fly over valleys;

0:10:54.020,0:10:57.118
we can fly over surface magnetism,

0:10:57.180,0:10:59.666
the polar caps, subsurface water;

0:10:59.755,0:11:01.754
and we can search for life on Mars.

0:11:03.600,0:11:05.599
But, of equal importance,

0:11:05.600,0:11:08.599
as we fly through the atmosphere of Mars,

0:11:08.892,0:11:11.154
we transmit that journey,

0:11:11.175,0:11:14.225
the first flight of an airplane[br]outside of the Earth,

0:11:14.297,0:11:17.296
we transmit those images back to Earth.

0:11:17.417,0:11:21.503
And our goal is to inspire[br]the American public

0:11:21.600,0:11:24.599
who is paying for this mission[br]through tax dollars.

0:11:24.600,0:11:27.599
But more important we will

0:11:27.600,0:11:30.599
inspire the next generation of scientists,

0:11:30.600,0:11:33.599
technologists, engineers[br]and mathematicians.

0:11:33.600,0:11:36.600
And that's a critical area[br]of national security

0:11:37.600,0:11:40.600
and economic vitality, to make sure

0:11:41.600,0:11:43.599
we produce the next generation

0:11:43.600,0:11:46.599
of scientists, engineers,[br]mathematicians and technologists.

0:11:49.000,0:11:50.549
This is what ARES looks like

0:11:50.570,0:11:52.569
as it flies over Mars.

0:11:52.602,0:11:54.168
We preprogram it.

0:11:54.189,0:11:56.751
We will fly where the methane is.

0:11:56.785,0:11:59.299
We will have instruments aboard the plane

0:11:59.328,0:12:03.109
that will sample, every three minutes,[br]the atmosphere of Mars.

0:12:03.317,0:12:04.838
We will look for methane

0:12:04.865,0:12:06.687
as well as other gasses

0:12:06.746,0:12:08.504
produced by living systems.

0:12:08.525,0:12:12.219
We will pinpoint[br]where these gases emanate from,

0:12:12.261,0:12:15.601
because we can measure the gradient[br]where it comes from,

0:12:15.634,0:12:19.061
and there, we can direct the next mission

0:12:19.126,0:12:21.827
to land right in that area.

0:12:23.380,0:12:26.379
How do we transport an airplane to Mars?

0:12:26.800,0:12:29.799
In two words, very carefully.

0:12:29.800,0:12:33.223
The problem is we don't fly it to Mars,

0:12:33.562,0:12:36.152
we put it in a spacecraft

0:12:36.221,0:12:38.136
and we send it to Mars.

0:12:38.157,0:12:40.747
The problem is the spacecraft's

0:12:40.800,0:12:43.800
largest diameter is nine feet;

0:12:44.133,0:12:48.804
ARES is 21-foot wingspan, 17 feet long.

0:12:49.800,0:12:51.799
How do we get it to Mars?

0:12:51.800,0:12:53.038
We fold it,

0:12:53.062,0:12:56.641
and we transport it in a spacecraft.

0:12:57.109,0:13:00.467
And we have it in something[br]called an aeroshell.

0:13:00.581,0:13:02.580
This is how we do it.

0:13:03.340,0:13:07.207
And we have a little video[br]that describes the sequence.

0:13:07.245,0:13:12.064
Video: Seven, six. Green board.[br]Five, four, three, two, one.

0:13:12.131,0:13:15.131
Main engine start, and liftoff.

0:13:24.600,0:13:28.188
Joel Levine: This is a launch[br]from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

0:13:33.600,0:13:36.315
This is the spacecraft taking nine months

0:13:36.393,0:13:38.119
to get to Mars.

0:13:38.140,0:13:41.039
It enters the atmosphere of Mars.

0:13:41.179,0:13:44.349
A lot of heating, frictional heating.

0:13:47.200,0:13:49.199
It's going 18 thousand miles an hour.

0:13:49.200,0:13:52.200
A parachute opens up to slow it down.

0:13:53.200,0:13:55.247
The thermal tiles fall off.

0:13:55.268,0:13:58.267
The airplane is exposed[br]to the atmosphere for the first time.

0:13:58.846,0:14:00.335
It unfolds.

0:14:01.676,0:14:03.676
The rocket engine begins.

0:14:10.168,0:14:13.167
We believe that in a one-hour flight

0:14:13.192,0:14:16.191
we can rewrite the textbook on Mars

0:14:16.358,0:14:19.357
by making high-resolution measurements[br]of the atmosphere,

0:14:19.533,0:14:22.016
looking for gases of biogenic origin,

0:14:22.057,0:14:25.056
looking for gases of volcanic origin,

0:14:25.318,0:14:28.532
studying the surface,[br]studying the magnetism

0:14:28.580,0:14:30.817
on the surface, which we don't understand,

0:14:30.918,0:14:33.897
as well as about a dozen other areas.

0:14:33.970,0:14:35.760
Practice makes perfect.

0:14:35.795,0:14:37.602
How do we know we can do it?

0:14:37.623,0:14:41.252
Because we have tested ARES model,

0:14:41.326,0:14:44.196
several models[br]in a half a dozen wind tunnels

0:14:44.224,0:14:47.223
at the NASA Langley Research Center[br]for eight years,

0:14:47.247,0:14:49.688
under Mars conditions.

0:14:49.803,0:14:51.802
And, of equal importance

0:14:51.842,0:14:55.259
is, we test ARES[br]in the Earth's atmosphere,

0:14:55.629,0:14:57.687
at 100,000 feet,

0:14:57.708,0:15:01.561
which is comparable[br]to the density and pressure

0:15:01.582,0:15:04.260
of the atmosphere on Mars where we'll fly.

0:15:04.295,0:15:07.752
Now, 100,000 feet, if you fly[br]cross-country to Los Angeles,

0:15:07.787,0:15:09.786
you fly 37,000 feet.

0:15:09.985,0:15:12.821
We do our tests at 100,000 feet.

0:15:12.843,0:15:15.742
And I want to show you one of our tests.

0:15:15.779,0:15:17.607
This is a half-scale model.

0:15:17.644,0:15:20.179
This is a high-altitude helium balloon.

0:15:20.535,0:15:23.199
This is over Tilamook, Oregon.

0:15:23.430,0:15:27.139
We put the folded airplane[br]on the balloon -

0:15:27.200,0:15:29.504
it took about three hours[br]to get up there -

0:15:29.620,0:15:31.599
and then we released it on command

0:15:31.600,0:15:33.599
at 103,000 feet,

0:15:33.600,0:15:39.142
and we deploy the airplane[br]and everything works perfectly.

0:15:39.800,0:15:41.799
And we've done

0:15:41.800,0:15:43.799
high-altitude and low-altitude tests,

0:15:43.800,0:15:46.800
just to perfect this technique.

0:15:49.580,0:15:51.117
We're ready to go.

0:15:51.138,0:15:53.545
I have a scale model here.

0:15:53.823,0:15:56.172
But we have a full-scale model

0:15:56.200,0:15:59.199
in storage at the NASA[br]Langley Research Center.

0:15:59.400,0:16:00.923
We're ready to go.

0:16:01.000,0:16:03.999
All we need is a check[br]from NASA headquarters

0:16:04.000,0:16:05.999
(Laughter)

0:16:06.000,0:16:07.999
to cover the costs.

0:16:08.000,0:16:10.999
I'm prepared to donate[br]my honorarium for today's talk

0:16:11.000,0:16:12.999
for this mission.

0:16:13.000,0:16:16.000
There's actually no honorarium[br]for anyone for this thing.

0:16:16.254,0:16:18.253
This is the ARES team;

0:16:18.301,0:16:22.133
we have about 150 scientists, engineers;

0:16:22.174,0:16:24.555
where we're working[br]with Jet Propulsion Laboratory,

0:16:24.576,0:16:26.174
Goddard Space Flight Center,

0:16:26.198,0:16:29.569
Ames Research Center[br]and half a dozen major universities

0:16:29.627,0:16:31.771
and corporations in developing this.

0:16:31.896,0:16:33.863
It's a large effort.

0:16:34.444,0:16:38.549
It's all led[br]at NASA Langley Research Center.

0:16:38.785,0:16:41.784
And let me conclude by saying

0:16:41.805,0:16:43.594
not too far from here,

0:16:43.650,0:16:46.428
right down the road in Kittyhawk,[br]North Carolina,

0:16:46.449,0:16:48.448
a little more than 100 years ago

0:16:48.635,0:16:50.110
history was made

0:16:50.131,0:16:53.130
when we had the first powered flight[br]of an airplane on Earth.

0:16:53.150,0:16:55.150
And in Anna McGowan's talk,

0:16:55.170,0:16:59.254
you heard about[br]where we're going in the next 100 years.

0:16:59.741,0:17:01.740
We are on the verge right now

0:17:01.794,0:17:04.604
to make the first flight of an airplane

0:17:04.657,0:17:06.656
outside the Earth's atmosphere.

0:17:06.682,0:17:09.429
We are prepared to fly this on Mars,

0:17:09.450,0:17:11.795
rewrite the textbook about Mars.

0:17:12.380,0:17:15.378
If you're interested in more information,

0:17:15.400,0:17:19.281
we have a website[br]that describes this exciting

0:17:19.319,0:17:22.012
and intriguing mission,[br]and why we want to do it.

0:17:22.042,0:17:23.520
Thank you very much.

0:17:23.546,0:17:26.296
(Applause)