WEBVTT

00:00:11.310 --> 00:00:13.165
"We're declaring war against cancer,

00:00:13.165 --> 00:00:15.765
and we will win this war by 2015."

00:00:16.980 --> 00:00:20.716
This is what the US Congress
and the National Cancer Institute declared

00:00:20.750 --> 00:00:23.310
just a few years ago, in 2003.

00:00:24.050 --> 00:00:27.146
Now, I don't know about you,
but I don't buy that.

00:00:27.146 --> 00:00:29.202
I don't think we quite won this war yet,

00:00:29.210 --> 00:00:31.850
and I don't think
anyone here will question that.

00:00:32.280 --> 00:00:34.776
Now, I will argue that a primary reason

00:00:34.790 --> 00:00:36.926
why we're not winning
this war against cancer

00:00:36.940 --> 00:00:39.236
is because we're fighting blindly.

00:00:39.260 --> 00:00:42.835
I'm going to start by sharing with you
a story about a good friend of mine.

00:00:42.860 --> 00:00:44.076
His name is Ehud,

00:00:44.100 --> 00:00:47.236
and a few years ago,
Ehud was diagnosed with brain cancer.

00:00:47.270 --> 00:00:49.126
And not just any type of brain cancer:

00:00:49.140 --> 00:00:52.316
he was diagnosed with one
of the most deadly forms of brain cancer.

00:00:52.340 --> 00:00:53.556
In fact, it was so deadly

00:00:53.580 --> 00:00:56.236
that the doctors told him
that they only have 12 months,

00:00:56.260 --> 00:00:59.676
and during those 12 months,
they have to find a treatment.

00:00:59.710 --> 00:01:01.166
They have to find a cure,

00:01:01.170 --> 00:01:03.330
and if they cannot
find a cure, he will die.

00:01:04.172 --> 00:01:05.628
Now, the good news, they said,

00:01:05.648 --> 00:01:08.584
is that there are tons
of different treatments to choose from,

00:01:08.584 --> 00:01:09.800
but the bad news is

00:01:09.820 --> 00:01:13.356
that in order for them to tell
if a treatment is even working or not,

00:01:13.360 --> 00:01:15.856
well, that takes them
about three months or so.

00:01:15.870 --> 00:01:18.246
So they cannot try that many things.

00:01:18.250 --> 00:01:21.346
Well, Ehud is now going
into his first treatment,

00:01:21.350 --> 00:01:24.606
and during that first treatment,
just a few days into that treatment,

00:01:24.630 --> 00:01:27.966
I'm meeting with him, and he tells me,
"Adam, I think this is working.

00:01:27.966 --> 00:01:30.782
I think we really lucked out here.
Something is happening."

00:01:30.810 --> 00:01:33.266
And I ask him, "Really?
How do you know that, Ehud?"

00:01:33.290 --> 00:01:35.506
And he says, "Well,
I feel so terrible inside.

00:01:35.530 --> 00:01:37.386
Something's gotta be working up there.

00:01:37.410 --> 00:01:38.626
It just has to."

00:01:38.626 --> 00:01:43.066
Well, unfortunately, three months later,
we got the news, it didn't work.

00:01:44.020 --> 00:01:46.076
And so Ehud goes
into his second treatment.

00:01:46.100 --> 00:01:47.356
And again, the same story.

00:01:47.370 --> 00:01:50.106
"It feels so bad, something's
gotta be working there."

00:01:50.130 --> 00:01:53.066
And then three months later,
again we get bad news.

00:01:53.090 --> 00:01:57.026
Ehud is going into his third treatment,
and then his fourth treatment.

00:01:57.030 --> 00:01:59.550
And then, as predicted, Ehud dies.

00:02:00.420 --> 00:02:04.996
Now, when someone really close to you
is going through such a huge struggle,

00:02:05.010 --> 00:02:06.826
you get really swamped with emotions.

00:02:06.830 --> 00:02:08.925
A lot of things
are going through your head.

00:02:08.930 --> 00:02:10.386
For me, it was mostly outrage.

00:02:10.400 --> 00:02:15.096
I was just outraged that, how come
this is the best that we can offer?

00:02:15.120 --> 00:02:17.416
And I started looking
more and more into this.

00:02:17.420 --> 00:02:20.876
As it turns out, this is not just
the best that doctors could offer Ehud.

00:02:20.890 --> 00:02:24.706
It's not just the best doctors could offer
patients with brain cancer generally.

00:02:24.720 --> 00:02:27.920
We're actually not doing that well
all across the board with cancer.

00:02:28.720 --> 00:02:30.576
I picked up one of those statistics,

00:02:30.580 --> 00:02:33.356
and I'm sure some of you
have seen those statistics before.

00:02:33.370 --> 00:02:36.826
This is going to show you here
how many patients actually died of cancer,

00:02:36.830 --> 00:02:38.846
in this case females in the United States,

00:02:38.860 --> 00:02:40.156
ever since the 1930s.

00:02:40.160 --> 00:02:43.336
You'll notice that there aren't
that many things that have changed.

00:02:43.340 --> 00:02:44.636
It's still a huge issue.

00:02:44.650 --> 00:02:46.386
You'll see a few changes though.

00:02:46.390 --> 00:02:48.926
You'll see lung cancer,
for example, on the rise.

00:02:48.950 --> 00:02:50.150
Thank you, cigarettes.

00:02:50.940 --> 00:02:53.436
And you'll also see that,
for example, stomach cancer

00:02:53.440 --> 00:02:56.776
once used to be one
of the biggest killers of all cancers,

00:02:56.790 --> 00:02:58.230
is essentially eliminated.

00:02:58.840 --> 00:03:00.896
Now, why is that?
Anyone knows, by the way?

00:03:00.920 --> 00:03:04.256
Why is it that humanity is no longer
struck by stomach cancer?

00:03:04.270 --> 00:03:09.126
What was the huge, huge
medical technology breakthrough

00:03:09.140 --> 00:03:12.500
that came to our world
that saved humanity from stomach cancer?

00:03:13.710 --> 00:03:17.526
Was it maybe a new drug,
or a better diagnostic?

00:03:17.530 --> 00:03:18.826
You guys are right, yeah.

00:03:18.850 --> 00:03:21.466
It's the invention of the refrigerator,

00:03:21.470 --> 00:03:24.086
and the fact that we're
no longer eating spoiled meats.

00:03:24.100 --> 00:03:26.396
So the best thing
that happened to us so far

00:03:26.410 --> 00:03:28.346
in the medical arena in cancer research

00:03:28.360 --> 00:03:30.551
is the fact that
the refrigerator was invented.

00:03:30.575 --> 00:03:31.776
(Laughter)

00:03:31.790 --> 00:03:33.046
And so -- yeah, I know.

00:03:33.070 --> 00:03:34.486
We're not doing so well here.

00:03:34.490 --> 00:03:36.826
I don't want to miniaturize the progress

00:03:36.840 --> 00:03:40.216
and everything that's been done
in cancer research.

00:03:40.420 --> 00:03:43.836
Look, there is like 50-plus years
of good cancer research

00:03:43.840 --> 00:03:47.256
that discovered major, major things
that taught us about cancer.

00:03:47.270 --> 00:03:49.006
But all that said,

00:03:49.010 --> 00:03:51.582
we have a lot of heavy lifting
to still do ahead of us.

00:03:53.310 --> 00:03:56.406
Again, I will argue that the primary
reason why this is the case,

00:03:56.430 --> 00:03:58.430
why we have not done that remarkably well,

00:03:58.464 --> 00:04:00.296
is really we're fighting blindly here.

00:04:00.310 --> 00:04:02.526
And this is where
medical imaging comes in.

00:04:02.526 --> 00:04:04.206
This is where my own work comes in.

00:04:04.930 --> 00:04:07.666
And so to give you a sense
of the best medical imaging

00:04:07.670 --> 00:04:10.166
that's offered today
to brain cancer patients,

00:04:10.166 --> 00:04:12.342
or actually generally
to all cancer patients,

00:04:12.350 --> 00:04:14.286
take a look at this PET scan right here.

00:04:14.290 --> 00:04:15.529
Let's see. There we go.

00:04:16.149 --> 00:04:17.846
So this is a PET/CT scan,

00:04:17.870 --> 00:04:20.325
and what you'll see in this PET/CT scan

00:04:20.349 --> 00:04:23.566
is the CT scan will show you
where the bones are,

00:04:23.580 --> 00:04:25.980
and the PET scan will show you
where tumors are.

00:04:26.340 --> 00:04:28.556
Now, what you can see here

00:04:28.560 --> 00:04:30.976
is essentially a sugar molecule

00:04:30.990 --> 00:04:32.806
that was added a small little tag

00:04:32.810 --> 00:04:34.906
that is signaling to us
outside of the body,

00:04:34.910 --> 00:04:36.206
"Hey, I'm here."

00:04:36.230 --> 00:04:40.046
And those sugar molecules are injected
into these patients by the billions,

00:04:40.050 --> 00:04:41.746
and they're going all over the body

00:04:41.750 --> 00:04:43.830
looking for cells
that are hungry for sugar.

00:04:44.730 --> 00:04:47.386
You'll see that the heart,
for example, lights up there.

00:04:47.390 --> 00:04:49.606
That's because the heart
needs a lot of sugar.

00:04:49.606 --> 00:04:51.942
You'll also see that the bladder
lights up there.

00:04:51.942 --> 00:04:54.558
That's because the bladder
is the thing that's clearing

00:04:54.560 --> 00:04:55.960
the sugar away from our body.

00:04:56.826 --> 00:04:58.826
And then you'll see a few other hot spots,

00:04:58.826 --> 00:05:00.442
and these are in fact the tumors.

00:05:00.450 --> 00:05:02.586
Now, this is a really
a wonderful technology.

00:05:02.600 --> 00:05:05.736
For the first time it allowed us
to look into someone's body

00:05:05.750 --> 00:05:08.126
without picking up
each and every one of the cells

00:05:08.140 --> 00:05:09.996
and putting them under the microscope,

00:05:09.996 --> 00:05:13.012
but in a noninvasive way
allowing us to look into someone's body

00:05:13.020 --> 00:05:15.156
and ask, "Hey,
has the cancer metastasized?

00:05:15.156 --> 00:05:16.372
Where is it?"

00:05:16.372 --> 00:05:18.868
And the PET scans here
are showing you very clearly

00:05:18.870 --> 00:05:21.150
where are these hot spots,
where is the tumor.

00:05:22.140 --> 00:05:25.436
So as miraculous as this might seem,

00:05:25.460 --> 00:05:28.340
unfortunately, well, it's not that great.

00:05:29.100 --> 00:05:31.180
You see, those
small little hot spots there.

00:05:31.900 --> 00:05:35.420
Can anyone guess how many cancer cells
are in any one of these tumors?

00:05:37.290 --> 00:05:39.626
So it's about 100 million cancer cells,

00:05:39.640 --> 00:05:42.336
and let me make sure
that this number sunk in.

00:05:42.336 --> 00:05:44.672
In each and every one
of these small little blips

00:05:44.690 --> 00:05:46.266
that you're seeing on the image,

00:05:46.290 --> 00:05:50.386
there needs to be
at least 100 million cancer cells

00:05:50.386 --> 00:05:51.922
in order for it to be detected.

00:05:51.930 --> 00:05:54.386
Now, if that seemed to you
like a very large number,

00:05:54.410 --> 00:05:56.090
it is a very large number.

00:05:57.280 --> 00:05:59.336
This is in fact
an incredibly large number,

00:05:59.340 --> 00:06:02.676
because what we really need
in order to pick up something early enough

00:06:02.676 --> 00:06:05.612
to do something about it,
to do something meaningful about it,

00:06:05.630 --> 00:06:08.766
well, we need to pick up tumors
that are a thousand cells in size,

00:06:08.790 --> 00:06:10.926
and ideally just
a handful of cells in size.

00:06:10.951 --> 00:06:12.974
So we're clearly
pretty far away from this.

00:06:12.999 --> 00:06:14.887
And I remember looking at these numbers

00:06:14.912 --> 00:06:17.760
and being struck by the humonguos
difference

00:06:17.784 --> 00:06:20.577
between where we are today
and where we need to be.

00:06:20.601 --> 00:06:23.791
And saying, I'm an engineer -
it was very early in my career -

00:06:23.816 --> 00:06:26.736
I'm an engineer, let's see
if there's something I can do here.

00:06:26.863 --> 00:06:30.339
I started talking to a lot of surgeons,
radiologists,

00:06:30.371 --> 00:06:32.104
and other types of doctors

00:06:32.258 --> 00:06:34.036
that deal with brain cancer patients,

00:06:34.061 --> 00:06:36.767
because I was really
passionate about brain cancer.

00:06:36.847 --> 00:06:40.980
And I remember talking to them,
and boy, I was just horrified

00:06:41.154 --> 00:06:44.918
at how archaic medicine is today.

00:06:45.500 --> 00:06:47.756
So we're going to play
a little experiment here.

00:06:47.780 --> 00:06:50.236
I'm going to ask each of you
to now play and imagine

00:06:50.260 --> 00:06:51.620
that you are brain surgeons.

00:06:52.800 --> 00:06:56.816
And you guys are now at an operating room,

00:06:56.840 --> 00:06:58.856
and there's a patient in front of you,

00:06:58.880 --> 00:07:02.600
and your task is to make sure
that the tumor is out.

00:07:03.200 --> 00:07:06.576
So you're looking down at the patient,

00:07:06.600 --> 00:07:08.936
the skin and the skull
have already been removed,

00:07:08.960 --> 00:07:10.496
so you're looking at the brain.

00:07:10.520 --> 00:07:12.216
And all you know about this patient

00:07:12.240 --> 00:07:15.056
is that there's a tumor
about the size of a golf ball or so

00:07:15.080 --> 00:07:17.400
in the right frontal lobe
of this person's brain.

00:07:17.880 --> 00:07:19.216
And that's more or less it.

00:07:19.240 --> 00:07:22.456
So you're looking down, and unfortunately
everything looks the same,

00:07:22.480 --> 00:07:25.576
because brain cancer tissue
and healthy brain tissue

00:07:25.600 --> 00:07:27.176
really just look the same.

00:07:27.200 --> 00:07:29.096
And so you're going in with your thumb,

00:07:29.120 --> 00:07:31.456
and you start to press
a little bit on the brain,

00:07:31.480 --> 00:07:33.896
because tumors tend to be
a little harder, stiffer,

00:07:33.920 --> 00:07:36.536
and so you go in and go
a little bit like this and say,

00:07:36.560 --> 00:07:38.536
"It seems like the tumor is right there."

00:07:38.560 --> 00:07:41.216
Then you take out your knife
and start cutting the tumor

00:07:41.240 --> 00:07:42.496
piece by piece by piece,

00:07:42.520 --> 00:07:44.216
and as you're taking the tumor out,

00:07:44.240 --> 00:07:46.456
then you're getting
to a stage where you think,

00:07:46.480 --> 00:07:48.616
"All right, I'm done.
I took out everything."

00:07:48.640 --> 00:07:50.176
And at this stage, if that's --

00:07:50.200 --> 00:07:52.896
so far everything sounded,
like, pretty crazy --

00:07:52.920 --> 00:07:56.616
you're now about to face the most
challenging decision of your life here.

00:07:56.640 --> 00:07:58.176
Because now you need to decide,

00:07:58.200 --> 00:08:00.896
should I stop here
and let this patient go,

00:08:00.920 --> 00:08:03.856
risking that there might be
some leftover cancer cells behind

00:08:03.880 --> 00:08:05.736
that I just couldn't see,

00:08:05.760 --> 00:08:08.416
or should I take away some extra margins,

00:08:08.440 --> 00:08:11.296
typically about an inch or so
around the tumor

00:08:11.320 --> 00:08:13.520
just to be sure that I removed everything?

00:08:15.200 --> 00:08:19.040
So this is not a simple decision to make,

00:08:19.640 --> 00:08:21.576
and unfortunately this is the decision

00:08:21.600 --> 00:08:24.936
that brain cancer surgeons
have to take every single day

00:08:24.960 --> 00:08:26.560
as they're seeing their patients.

00:08:27.120 --> 00:08:30.056
And so I remember talking
to a few friends of mine in the lab,

00:08:30.080 --> 00:08:32.456
and we say, "Boy,
there's got to be a better way."

00:08:32.480 --> 00:08:35.895
But not just like you tell a friend
that there's got to be a better way.

00:08:35.919 --> 00:08:37.873
There's just got to be a better way here.

00:08:37.897 --> 00:08:39.416
This is just incredible.

00:08:39.440 --> 00:08:41.096
And so we looked back.

00:08:41.120 --> 00:08:44.096
Remember those PET scans I told you about,
the sugar and so on.

00:08:44.120 --> 00:08:46.856
We said, hey, how about
instead of using sugar molecules,

00:08:46.880 --> 00:08:50.016
let's maybe take tiny, tiny
little particles made of gold

00:08:50.040 --> 00:08:53.696
and let's program them with some
interesting chemistry around them.

00:08:53.720 --> 00:08:56.136
Let's program them
to look for cancer cells.

00:08:56.160 --> 00:08:58.256
And then we will inject
these gold particles

00:08:58.280 --> 00:09:00.536
into these patients by the billions again,

00:09:00.560 --> 00:09:02.536
and we'll have them go all over the body,

00:09:02.560 --> 00:09:04.536
and just like secret agents, if you will,

00:09:04.560 --> 00:09:07.376
go and walk by
every single cell in our body

00:09:07.400 --> 00:09:09.096
and knock on the door of that cell,

00:09:09.120 --> 00:09:11.856
and ask, "Are you a cancer cell
or are you a healthy cell?

00:09:11.880 --> 00:09:13.896
If you're a healthy cell, we're moving on.

00:09:13.920 --> 00:09:16.656
If you're a cancer cell,
we're sticking in and shining out

00:09:16.680 --> 00:09:18.776
and telling us,
"Hey, look at me, I'm here."

00:09:18.800 --> 00:09:21.176
And they'll do it
through some interesting cameras

00:09:21.200 --> 00:09:22.616
that we developed in the lab.

00:09:22.640 --> 00:09:25.575
And once we see that,
maybe we can guide brain cancer surgeons

00:09:25.599 --> 00:09:29.000
towards taking only the tumor
and leaving the healthy brain alone.

00:09:29.520 --> 00:09:32.576
And so we've tested that,
and boy, this works well.

00:09:32.600 --> 00:09:34.576
So I'm going to show you an example now.

00:09:34.600 --> 00:09:36.376
What you're looking at here

00:09:36.800 --> 00:09:40.450
is an image of a mouse's brain.

00:09:40.475 --> 00:09:43.522
The mouse is fully anestethized,
so it's not feeling anything -

00:09:43.560 --> 00:09:46.038
and we've implanted
into this mouse's brain

00:09:46.120 --> 00:09:47.376
a small little tumor.

00:09:47.418 --> 00:09:50.450
That tumor was taken from
a brain cancer patient

00:09:50.506 --> 00:09:52.132
who donated it.

00:09:52.800 --> 00:09:55.416
And so this tumor is now
growing in this mouse's brain,

00:09:55.440 --> 00:09:58.096
and then we've taken a doctor
and just asked this doctor

00:09:58.120 --> 00:10:00.936
to please operate on the mouse
as if that was a patient,

00:10:00.960 --> 00:10:03.376
and take out piece by piece
out of the tumor,

00:10:03.400 --> 00:10:05.176
and while he's doing that,

00:10:05.200 --> 00:10:08.176
we're going to take images
to see where the gold particles are.

00:10:08.200 --> 00:10:09.816
And so we're going to first start

00:10:09.840 --> 00:10:12.256
by injecting these gold particles
into this mouse,

00:10:12.280 --> 00:10:15.176
and we're going to see
right here at the very left there

00:10:15.200 --> 00:10:16.456
that image at the bottom

00:10:16.480 --> 00:10:18.976
is the image that shows
where the gold particles are.

00:10:19.000 --> 00:10:21.056
The nice thing
is that these gold particles

00:10:21.080 --> 00:10:23.096
actually made it all the way to the tumor,

00:10:23.120 --> 00:10:26.776
and then they shine out and tell us,
"Hey, we're here. Here's the tumor."

00:10:26.800 --> 00:10:28.176
So now we can see the tumor,

00:10:28.200 --> 00:10:30.336
but we're not showing this
to the doctor yet.

00:10:30.360 --> 00:10:33.416
We're asking the doctor,
now please start cutting away the tumor,

00:10:33.440 --> 00:10:36.856
and you'll see here the doctor
just took the first quadrant of the tumor

00:10:36.880 --> 00:10:39.096
and you see that first quadrant
is now missing.

00:10:39.120 --> 00:10:41.576
The doctor then took
the second quadrant, the third,

00:10:41.600 --> 00:10:43.336
and now it appears to be everything.

00:10:43.360 --> 00:10:46.096
And so at this stage,
the doctor came back to us and said,

00:10:46.120 --> 00:10:48.376
"All right, I'm done.
What do you want me to do?

00:10:48.400 --> 00:10:49.976
Should I keep things as they are

00:10:50.000 --> 00:10:52.496
or do you want me to take
some extra margins around?"

00:10:52.520 --> 00:10:54.176
And then we said, "Well, hang on.

00:10:54.200 --> 00:10:55.940
You've missed those two spots."

00:10:55.965 --> 00:10:58.972
And it's extremely hard to see
on the projector, but trust me -

00:10:59.028 --> 00:11:00.856
it's there, some of you might notice -

00:11:00.880 --> 00:11:03.147
there are two small red dots there

00:11:03.157 --> 00:11:04.910
in that area there.

00:11:05.489 --> 00:11:08.114
We told the doctor, "You've missed
those two spots,"

00:11:08.139 --> 00:11:10.139
so rather than taking huge margins around,

00:11:10.164 --> 00:11:11.996
only take out those tiny little areas.

00:11:12.020 --> 00:11:14.036
Take them out,
and then let's take a look."

00:11:14.060 --> 00:11:17.304
And so the doctor took them away,
and lo and behold,

00:11:17.540 --> 00:11:19.556
the cancer is now completely gone.

00:11:20.380 --> 00:11:21.756
Now, the important thing

00:11:21.780 --> 00:11:24.400
is that it's not just
that the cancer is completely gone

00:11:24.424 --> 00:11:25.756
from this person's brain,

00:11:25.780 --> 00:11:27.100
or from this mouse's brain.

00:11:27.860 --> 00:11:29.116
The most important thing

00:11:29.140 --> 00:11:32.036
is that we did not have to take
huge amounts of healthy brain

00:11:32.060 --> 00:11:33.276
in the process.

00:11:33.300 --> 00:11:35.476
And so now we can actually imagine a world

00:11:35.500 --> 00:11:39.396
where doctors and surgeons,
as they take away a tumor,

00:11:39.420 --> 00:11:42.860
they actually know what to take out,
and they no longer have to guess.

00:11:44.220 --> 00:11:48.156
Now, here's why it's extremely important
to take those tiny little leftover tumors.

00:11:48.180 --> 00:11:51.036
Those leftover tumors,
even if it's just a handful of cells,

00:11:51.060 --> 00:11:54.116
they will grow to recur the tumor,

00:11:54.140 --> 00:11:55.796
for the tumor to come back.

00:11:55.820 --> 00:11:57.756
In fact, the reason why 80 to 90 percent

00:11:57.780 --> 00:11:59.996
of those brain cancer surgeries
ultimately fail

00:12:00.020 --> 00:12:03.796
is because of those small little
extra margins that were left positive,

00:12:03.820 --> 00:12:06.500
those small little leftover tumors
that were left there.

00:12:07.260 --> 00:12:10.215
And I think,
where medical imaging is heading to,

00:12:10.244 --> 00:12:12.515
is the ability to look
into the human body

00:12:12.546 --> 00:12:16.696
and actually see each
and every one of these cells separately.

00:12:16.782 --> 00:12:18.831
The ability like this would allow us

00:12:18.856 --> 00:12:21.370
to pick up tumors way early
in the process

00:12:21.379 --> 00:12:23.863
way before it's a hundred million
cells in size,

00:12:23.874 --> 00:12:25.915
so we can actually do something about it.

00:12:25.966 --> 00:12:28.561
An ability to see each and every one
of the cells

00:12:28.569 --> 00:12:30.894
might also allow us to ask
insightful questions.

00:12:30.934 --> 00:12:32.941
So in the lab,
we're now getting to a point

00:12:33.014 --> 00:12:36.220
where we can actually start asking
these cancer cells real questions

00:12:36.245 --> 00:12:39.974
like, for example, are you responding
to the treatment we're giving you or not?

00:12:39.999 --> 00:12:42.934
If you're not, we will know
to stop the treatment right away -

00:12:42.974 --> 00:12:45.101
days into the treatment,
not three months.

00:12:46.228 --> 00:12:48.095
Also for patients like Ehud,

00:12:48.442 --> 00:12:52.109
that are going through these
nasty chemotherapy drugs.

00:12:52.823 --> 00:12:56.902
For them not to suffer through
those horendous side effects of the drugs,

00:12:56.985 --> 00:12:59.728
when drugs are in fact
not even helping them.

00:13:01.900 --> 00:13:03.124
So to be frank here,

00:13:03.160 --> 00:13:06.616
we're pretty far away
from winning the war against cancer,

00:13:06.640 --> 00:13:07.896
just to be realistic.

00:13:07.920 --> 00:13:09.816
But at least I am hopeful

00:13:09.840 --> 00:13:13.976
that we should be able to fight this war
with better medical imaging techniques

00:13:14.000 --> 00:13:15.856
in the way that is not blind.

00:13:15.880 --> 00:13:17.096
Thank you.

00:13:17.120 --> 00:13:19.360
(Applause)