WEBVTT

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According to statistics published by FAO,

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it is estimated that on our planet
about one billion people

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are, to some extent, undernourished,
they suffer from hunger.

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This is especially relevant
when it comes to children,

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and the deficiency of animal proteins

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that influences their physical
and intellectual development,

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and may cause, in the long term,
important deficits.

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Animal proteins come from farm animals.

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Animal breeding has historically evolved
with the evolution of civilization;

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and today, according to FAO statistics,

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we roughly breed 3.5 billion animals,

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excluding birds and fishes,

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which means one farmed animal
every two people on Earth.

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These animals also have
an impact on the environment

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and by breeding them we generate
a number of major environmental issues.

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A large number of these animals

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is located in climatically
challenged areas,

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so the productivity
of these animals is rather low,

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while in countries
with advanced zootechnics

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we have less animals,
but much more productive.

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To give you an idea,

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if in 1950, in the Po Valley,

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a Friesian dairy cow
gave 4,000 kilos of milk,

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today with the same products,
the same soil and and the same technology,

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but with different genetics,

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we can extract from these cows
more than twice the amount of milk,

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Therefore, the selection
and genetic improvement of animals

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for animal protein production

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played a pivotal role

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in countries with advanced zoo-techniques,

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while it plays no role yet
in areas of the planet

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where animals are still raised
in a, say, primitive state.

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What is the tool that allows us
to improve the animals we breed?

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This improvement is brought about
through reproduction technologies,

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From the 1950s onwards, in particular,

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artificial insemination has been
the main tool for genetic improvement,

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In other words, the semen
of superior animals

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has been distributed
through on-farm insemination

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and this has resulted

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in the productive increase
that I have just shown you.

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Other technologies
were developed over the years,

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always with a view to speeding up

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this process of selection
and genetic improvement.

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In particular, embryo-related technologies

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have led to an increased exploitation
of the female germline:

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with spermatozoa we use the male;

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with ova, instead, we exploit
the genetic value of females.

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In particular, the production
of in vitro embryos

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is a recently acquired technology

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that allows us to produce
large numbers of test-tube embryos

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and now we’ll see how.

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This technology has also created
the technological premises, the know-how,

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to develop cloning,

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which is the topic
we are dealing with today.

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In turn, cloning laid the foundations

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that allowed us to make
genetic modification,

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or animal transgenesis -
similar to the one used for plants -

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a further tool in our pursuit

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of genetic improvement
of farm animals, and not only.

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A few words on in vitro technology now,
as it paved the way for animal cloning.

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Today, in a laboratory, we are able

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to take gametes, the ova from females
and the sperm from males,

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and obtain fertilization in a test tube -

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in vitro technology is synonymous
with test tube technology -

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obtain the first stages
of embryonic development,

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obtain an embryo that can be at this point
either implanted in a receiver, or frozen.

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So the value of this technology

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goes beyond the applications
that have been used so far

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and the value of this technology

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has resulted in the awarding
of the Nobel Prize for Medicine

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to the pioneer on humans
of this technology,

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which has led to the birth

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of over four million people
around the world.

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So, in vitro technology is crucial
to achieve cloning.

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Now, let's examine in greater detail
what we are going to talk about.

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The term cloning is improper,
often used inappropriately

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and it creates ungrounded fears.

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Technically speaking,

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we talk about somatic cloning
or cell nuclear transfer,

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because cloning consists

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in transferring into an egg cell
the nucleus of a cell.

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But, before we go into further detail,
what is meant by cloning?

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It means creating two animal organisms,

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that is, two living beings
with the same genetic makeup.

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All of you, I think,
know sets of homozygous twins,

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that is, two absolutely
identical individuals.

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Technically, we can define them clones,
so homozygous twins are clones.

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With cloning in the lab
we create homozygous twins,

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although they are born at different times.

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But to understand cloning even better,

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consider that it has always
been practiced in agriculture,

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because from a simple cutting of a plant

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we generate a new plant,
which is therefore cloned.

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Most artificial forests
or tree plantations, or fruit trees,

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are obtained by cloning;

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and we eat this fruit,

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we use these materials
that are of clonal origin,

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but no one has ever raised any objection,
as far as plants are concerned.

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The issues, when it comes to animals,
are different and more complicated,

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which is understandable.

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The first historical example of cloning

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appears in the Bible,
with the story of Adam and Eve.

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As you may remember, Eve was obtained
from a rib taken from Adam while he slept,

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so that is possibly
the first example of mammal cloning,

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but it didn't work very well, clearly,
as they were not exactly the same,

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indeed they were of different sexes.

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Later on, the first examples,
or at least attempts, of cloning

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were made with simple animals.

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Here on your left you can see
an example, dating back to 1928,

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when researchers tried
to recreate in a lab

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what happens spontaneously in nature
when monozygotic twins are formed,

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that is, monozygotic twins originate
from the bisection of the embryo,

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but the number of clones
we can produce this way is rather limited.

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Instead, in these experiments
on frogs, in the '50s,

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they worked with nuclei
taken from adult animal,

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which meant every cell is enucleated,

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with all the genetic information it takes
to create an individual.

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These researchers introduced
these nuclei into frog eggs.

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However, they never succeeded
in obtaining adult animals,

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but only tadpoles,

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which are the stage before metamorphosis.

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The same experiments were carried out
unsuccessfully on mice,

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so, in 1983 some researchers claimed

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that it was impossible to clone animals

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starting from adult cells.

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In 1986, the first clones
of domestic animals

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were obtained using cells
taken from the embryo

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just a few hours after fertilization,

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when the few cells that make up the embryo

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are still undifferentiated.

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Briefly, how do we go about it?

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As you will have understood,
we need the genome,

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which is to be found in nuclei of cells.

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So we start with a biopsy
taken from an adult animal,

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which can also be an animal
that has just been slaughtered

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or even a dead animal.

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These cells can be multiplied
in vitro, so in a laboratory,

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or they can also be frozen
in liquid nitrogen,

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and preserved for decades.

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Then, since we are not dealing
with plants, we need an oocyte,

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because we have to put the genome
in its natural environment,

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so that it may develop,

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and we use, just like everyone,
oocytes taken at the slaughterhouse.

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As the 20th-century naturalist who coined
the motto “Ex ovo omnia” used to say,

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everything originates from the egg,
which is quite evident.

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Since we work with farm animals
which eventually end up being slaughtered,

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we find plenty of oocytes
for our experiments

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in the slaughterhouse.

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However, we must remove from the oocyte
its genetic information

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and we must replace it

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with the genetic information
of the animal that we want to clone.

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So we introduce the nucleus,

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we have the activation
of the embryo thus formed,

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and this embryo is implanted
in the uterus of a surrogate mother,

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giving life to a genomic copy
of the original animal.

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So I have proved
that it is possible to get twins

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that are different ages
because they are born at different times,

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but from the genomic point of view
they have the same DNA.

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This is the first bull we obtained
in Cremona in 1999, Galileo.

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These are embryos,

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just so you see what they’re like
when they're put in utero,

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they are still undifferentiated,

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you can’t distinguish the parts
that will form the animal yet,

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and anyway there are no major differences
between one species and the other.

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This is Prometea, the first colt
obtained with this technique,

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She is the first filly,
the first equine clone in the world,

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and if I did not tell you
that it is a clone,

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you would consider it a normal animal,

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without any particular problems,

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and even if the efficiency
of the technique,

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in terms of animals born,

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is lower than natural reproduction,

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these animals are born absolutely normal

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and the proof that they're normal is,

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they are able to have a normal offspring,
when they grow up.

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Here, on the left,
you can see Prometea

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and her son Pegaso behind,

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obtained by artificial insemination.

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The same can be done with cattle.

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We have cloned several specimens
of superior bulls.

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This picture represents the clones

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of a very important reproducer
for the Friesian race,

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which died several years ago,

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and shows the genetic
potential of this animal

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that could be distributed, I think,
in a future perspective

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to those areas of the world
that do not have our advanced genetics,

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allowing them to quickly benefit
from reproducers like this,

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that would normally come
at unaffordable prices.

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A number of mammals have been cloned
with this technology.

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The technique is reproducible
and certainly perfectible.

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Here is Dolly, the first adult
somatic cell clone obtained in 1996,

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and then a number of other mammals
ending with the camel cloned last year.

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Besides allowing us to reproduce
genetic copies of animals,

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cloning has opened up
another perspective: genetic engineering.

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This instance of genetic engineering
has nothing to do with cloning

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but gives you an idea

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of how much powerful - and even scary -
this technique could be.

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These are two mice, two brothers.

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The rat growth hormone was inserted
in the embryo of one of the two,

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so it grew the size of a rat.

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Of course doing this kind of manipulation
on farm animals is much more complicated,

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which is why the idea
of working in this direction

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was only acted upon
once cloning became available.

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I already shared the technique,
so where's the difference?

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Nowadays, using fairly reproducible
and safe techniques,

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I can engineer somatic cells

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taken from an animal
and being cultivated in a laboratory.

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I do my genetic engineering operation:

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I can insert genetic characteristics
that interests me,

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or I can remove negative characteristics;

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or I could intervene
on genetic defects or mutations.

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I then take these cells,

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I follow the process
I already described to you

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and the animal that is born is no longer
identical to the original -

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or better, it resembles it closely,

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but in addition, it will have the feature
I introduced and modified.

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As I was saying, thanks to these systems,
we can now engineer large animals,

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which could not be engineered previously.

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By way of example, here is a line of pigs
in which we produced a marker,

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which is a protein taken
from a marine jellyfish,

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that makes them fluorescent
under blue light.

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This is an example of a line

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that serves for research
and experimentation,

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as we can trace the cells,

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but above all, if instead of using green

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I use a genetic disease,
or something else,

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I can create animal models.

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In particular, we are working
to engineer the pig genome,

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so that pig organs may become
compatible with human organs.

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This means that pigs in the future
will no longer be bred only for ham,

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but may also be used as a source of organs
for transplantation in humans.

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There are also applications
in the field of animal husbandry.

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For instance, Canadian researchers

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have engineered pigs
that can assimilate phosphorus.

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As you know, when it comes
to pig breeding,

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pollution is a major problem,

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because pigs release large amounts
of phosphorus in their droppings,

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which ends up in the sea,
eutrophicates the environment

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and results in the proliferation of algae.

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This pig has been engineered
so as to produce an enzyme in its saliva,

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enabling it to digest organic phosphorus,
thus making it less polluting.

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Or this other example of a pig
rich in Omega 3 acids.

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Everyone knows

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how beneficial these acids are,
how good for our health,

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and it is possible to get
a line of this type.

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Or let’s take cattle: for example,

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the cow you see in the picture is cloned

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and was obtained
by inserting an antibacterial,

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so this cow has in its milk
a natural antibacterial,

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which makes it resistant to mastitis.

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Mastitis is the main cause
of infections on dairy farms,

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and tons of antibiotics are needed
to treat the animals suffering from it,

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with repercussions on animals’ health.

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Thanks to this operation
it is possible to solve the problem,

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or at least significantly reduce
the use of antibiotics,

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which is also beneficial for us

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since it causes resistance
to antibiotics in humans,

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which means doctors no longer have means
to treat us when we actually get sick.

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Another example is that of being able

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to produce drugs
in genetically modified animals,

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this is already a commercial product:

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a goat, obtained by means of cloning
and genetic engineering,

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which produces a substance
that controls the buildup of blood clots.

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This means, that patients
who need this molecule

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can now get it in larger quantities
and at lower prices,

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since by producing it
in animals, in goats,

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it is possible to produce
larger quantities,

00:17:13.520 --> 00:17:18.650
and especially for certain drugs
containing complex molecules

00:17:18.650 --> 00:17:21.580
that bacteria are unable to synthesize.

00:17:22.410 --> 00:17:27.970
To sum up, I would say that regardless
of the implications of the research,

00:17:27.970 --> 00:17:30.367
cloning has opened up new perspectives,

00:17:30.367 --> 00:17:34.330
new ways of perceiving
and approaching basic biology,

00:17:34.330 --> 00:17:37.770
which, unfortunately,
I don't have time to go into now.

00:17:38.150 --> 00:17:39.681
Anyway, even limiting ourselves

00:17:39.681 --> 00:17:44.794
to the potential impact
for us ordinary people,

00:17:44.794 --> 00:17:47.447
I can tell you that there are
two applications,

00:17:47.447 --> 00:17:51.000
in the zoo-technical
and biomedical fields.

00:17:51.000 --> 00:17:53.654
So cloning is important
not only for agriculture,

00:17:53.654 --> 00:17:56.260
but also for our health.

00:17:56.260 --> 00:18:00.689
Obviously it raises
a number of ethical issues,

00:18:01.440 --> 00:18:04.536
mainly in developed countries.

00:18:05.426 --> 00:18:07.386
Maybe other countries are less concerned

00:18:07.386 --> 00:18:11.630
because they need new technologies
and new opportunities.

00:18:13.930 --> 00:18:18.180
But there is an ideological stance
when it comes to these new technologies,

00:18:18.180 --> 00:18:20.240
therefore often a groundless stance,

00:18:20.240 --> 00:18:24.230
and I think that being able to explain,
with the utmost transparency,

00:18:24.230 --> 00:18:26.343
to the general audience,

00:18:26.343 --> 00:18:28.553
the opportunities brought by science,

00:18:28.553 --> 00:18:31.960
is definitely a thing to do

00:18:31.960 --> 00:18:34.596
and can help change, I think,
among the general audience

00:18:34.596 --> 00:18:38.340
the perception of this technique.

00:18:38.940 --> 00:18:40.510
Thank you.

00:18:40.510 --> 00:18:42.830
(Applause)