0:00:09.073,0:00:11.160
Today, in the palm of your hand,

0:00:11.356,0:00:14.226
you have access to a world of information.

0:00:15.055,0:00:17.802
You can reach a multitude of new sources

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and exchange your views[br]with a wide range of people

0:00:20.950,0:00:22.186
all over the world.

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This new reality should allow us [br]to share a wisdom,

0:00:27.401,0:00:30.216
to communicate, to understand each other

0:00:30.593,0:00:34.044
and to become more understanding [br]of our differences,

0:00:34.051,0:00:35.751
more tolerant of our differences.

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But 2016 seems to have replaced[br]the information age

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with the post-truth era.

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With Brexit and the Trump election,

0:00:46.494,0:00:48.458
we have found, we have discovered,

0:00:48.458,0:00:52.315
that more communication [br]doesn't mean more information.

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Let me show you what I mean.

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Here is a picture of the [br]Trump inauguration ceremony in 2017,

0:01:04.338,0:01:08.499
and the same picture of the [br]Obama inauguration ceremony in 2009.

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The White House declared[br]that the Trump ceremony

0:01:11.751,0:01:13.911
had been the largest in history.

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Did you know

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that 28% of Trump supporters

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said they believed there were [br]as many people, if not more,

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at the Trump ceremony.

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30% said they didn't know. [br]They were not sure.

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And 41%, that is less than half,

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said that they disagreed [br]with the White House statement.

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When you see these pictures, [br]these views may seem crazy.

0:01:44.101,0:01:47.496
So how is it that people can believe [br]something so clearly untrue?

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But wait a minute,

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Are you sure that you would never [br]believe something so clearly untrue?

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Think about it.

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These pictures are not proof.

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They could have been photoshopped.

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They could have been swapped.

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So when somebody raises[br]these doubts to you,

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you will have to use your own judgment

0:02:07.625,0:02:10.232
to weigh the evidence[br]and make up your mind.

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So now suppose that you were[br]a Trump supporter.

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Are you sure

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that you would not give any credence

0:02:17.660,0:02:19.343
to somebody raising these doubts?

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Are you sure that you[br]would never entertain

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that perhaps there were more people [br]at the Trump ceremony,

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and that these pictures are not proof?

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Today, I want to put to you

0:02:29.992,0:02:33.802
that the cause of the fake news success[br]lies primarily with us.

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Fake news works

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because we are willing to believe it.

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And because we are willing to believe it, [br]we lie to ourselves.

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If we want a sound public debate,

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we need to stop lying to ourselves[br]when we engage with the news.

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Let's consider an ideal public debate,

0:02:54.155,0:02:56.694
and think about it as a battle of ideas.

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All ideas are voiced and debated.

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A good idea is convincing,[br]and it wins over less convincing ideas.

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The philosopher Karl Popper

0:03:08.076,0:03:11.087
said that this process[br]should lead public debate

0:03:11.488,0:03:13.466
to select the best ideas.

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Unconvincing ideas disappear, [br]and only the good ones survive.

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And science seems like a perfect example

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where public debate[br]leads to selection of the best ideas.

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With this view in mind,

0:03:28.823,0:03:32.654
the Internet should have [br]a positive effect on public debate.

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On the Internet, ideas are free [br]to be voiced and criticized.

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Good ideas should be able to convince [br]more people and spread around,

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and bad ideas are abandoned.

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But when you look,

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that's not necessarily what is happening[br]on the Internet at the moment.

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So why is that?

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Well, perhaps, this view [br]of the public debate is a bit unrealistic.

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In 1949, Max Planck famously joked [br]about this vision from Popper.

0:04:04.444,0:04:08.827
Max Planck was a theoretical physicist [br]who eventually won a Nobel Prize.

0:04:09.755,0:04:10.972
He said,

0:04:10.972,0:04:15.625
"A new scientific truth doesn't triumph[br]because it convinces its opponents;

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rather, these opponents get old,

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and eventually they die,

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and they are replaced by [br]a new generation of scientists."

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And what Max Planck [br]was alluding to with irony

0:04:28.470,0:04:32.900
was to the reality of debates[br]with humans, us.

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Us humans, we are not designed [br]as perfect rational thinkers

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only looking for the truth.

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The fact is that often, [br]we are attached to our ideas.

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We can be attached to ideas

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because some ideas[br]may be convenient for us -

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for interest.

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So going to the example [br]of the scientists of Max Planck,

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these scientists may have become famous

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because of the ideas[br]that they proposed in the past,

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and which are now old ideas.

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Abandoning these ideas would be[br]losing part of the credit they got

0:05:06.914,0:05:09.716
for proposing these ideas [br]in the first place.

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But it's not just in science.

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If you think of politics,

0:05:13.680,0:05:16.925
if a government proposes[br]to extend social welfare,

0:05:17.853,0:05:19.793
those who would receive social welfare

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have an interest to believe [br]it's good for the country.

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And those who would have to pay[br]for the social welfare

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have an interest to think [br]it's bad for the country,

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it's a bad policy for the country.

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But we are not just attached to ideas[br]for material interests;

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it's much more complex.

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Often, we can be [br]emotionally attached to our ideas.

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They may be part of our identity.

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So if I'm a Christian conservative[br]or a left-wing liberal,

0:05:46.585,0:05:49.158
these ideas may be part of who I am.

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Abandoning these ideas [br]could be losing part of my identity.

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As a consequence,[br]we are attached to our ideas.

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So we're not neutral judges

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when we're considering [br]the evidence for or against them.

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On the contrary, [br]science and behavior

0:06:10.771,0:06:14.148
show that we typically [br]engage in self-deception,

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which means that we are[br]building beliefs which are compatible

0:06:18.553,0:06:21.397
with our interests [br]and with our other beliefs.

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Self-deception is subtle,

0:06:24.976,0:06:27.843
it takes place all the time[br]in your everyday life.

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So I'm going to give you two ways

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in which self-deception[br]can change what we believe in

0:06:32.215,0:06:34.372
and produce convenient[br]views for ourselves.

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First, when you receive some news,

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you have some flexibility [br]in how you consider it.

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If it's positive news[br]which is compatible with your beliefs,

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you can accept it as positive evidence.

0:06:49.804,0:06:51.061
And if it's negative news,

0:06:51.061,0:06:53.443
you can to the contrary[br]choose to discount it

0:06:53.443,0:06:55.740
and not choose to consider it.

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Let me tell you about a study.

0:06:58.336,0:07:01.312
A group of people [br]were asked about beliefs,

0:07:01.312,0:07:04.024
political beliefs [br]and non-political beliefs.

0:07:04.560,0:07:06.612
For their political beliefs,[br]they had to say

0:07:06.612,0:07:10.684
whether they believed in statements[br]such as "Abortion should be legal" -

0:07:10.684,0:07:14.300
very loaded statements,[br]typical of political statements.

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And non-political beliefs [br]were statements such as

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"Second-hand smoking[br]is dangerous to your health."

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So what happened is

0:07:25.282,0:07:28.651
that these people were confronted[br]with contradictions to these beliefs.

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What do you think people did?

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How did they react when they were [br]confronted with these contradictions?

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Well, here's how people reacted[br]with their non-political beliefs.

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So you have the strength of their beliefs[br]before the contradiction and after it.

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So when faced with a series[br]of contradictions,

0:07:47.883,0:07:49.670
they updated their beliefs

0:07:49.670,0:07:53.502
and the strength of their beliefs[br]was lower after facing contradictions.

0:07:54.205,0:07:55.915
But now look at what happened

0:07:55.915,0:07:59.210
when they were faced with contradictions[br]to their political beliefs.

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Here you can see that people resisted [br]the contradiction much more

0:08:03.702,0:08:06.640
and held to their political beliefs.

0:08:07.725,0:08:11.568
That's one way we selectively[br]interpret the news.

0:08:11.865,0:08:13.128
But there is another way.

0:08:13.128,0:08:16.575
We're not just receiving the news; [br]we're looking out for it.

0:08:16.690,0:08:19.467
We are selecting where we want [br]to look for information.

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And typically, we look for[br]confirming information.

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If you are a conservative,

0:08:23.939,0:08:26.522
you are more likely[br]to read a conservative newspaper,

0:08:26.615,0:08:28.732
to watch a conservative news channel,

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and perhaps even to turn off[br]the TV or the radio

0:08:31.810,0:08:34.193
when a left-wing politician [br]is being interviewed.

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Let me show you a hypothetical scenario.

0:08:39.718,0:08:43.315
Let's say that you wake up in the morning[br]and you open your newspaper,

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and in one scenario,

0:08:45.261,0:08:47.423
you've got some news which is not good -

0:08:47.423,0:08:49.240
it's a contradiction to your beliefs.

0:08:49.721,0:08:53.016
Let's say that this news suggests[br]that your favorite politician

0:08:53.016,0:08:54.907
is involved in a political scandal.

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And consider the other situation, [br]where to the contrary,

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the news in the newspaper is positive -[br]it goes with your usual beliefs.

0:09:05.927,0:09:09.586
Perhaps it's another politician, [br]a politician you do not like,

0:09:10.048,0:09:12.138
who is involved in the political scandal.

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Do you think, do you feel,

0:09:15.737,0:09:19.051
that you'd react in the same way[br]to these two situations?

0:09:19.894,0:09:21.805
Well, research shows that you would not.

0:09:21.805,0:09:26.081
Most likely, what happens[br]is that if you find a contradiction,

0:09:26.333,0:09:28.718
you tend to look for all the news sources.

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You give yourself a chance[br]to find something

0:09:30.949,0:09:32.979
which will contradict this negative news.

0:09:33.813,0:09:35.140
Perhaps another newspaper,

0:09:35.140,0:09:37.636
perhaps you will read[br]the fine print in the newspaper

0:09:37.636,0:09:42.023
to make sure that the title[br]was really reflecting the information.

0:09:42.460,0:09:44.810
On the contrary, [br]if you have the positive news,

0:09:44.810,0:09:46.545
you're more likely to stop there,

0:09:46.972,0:09:50.369
you're more likely to be happy to consider[br]that this piece of evidence

0:09:50.369,0:09:53.122
is enough for you to make up[br]your mind on this issue.

0:09:54.554,0:09:59.353
So as much as we would like to think[br]of ourselves as rational thinkers,

0:10:00.043,0:10:04.043
it is a fact that this tendency [br]to look for confirming news

0:10:04.043,0:10:07.900
and to reject negative information [br]is ingrained in us.

0:10:09.563,0:10:11.308
So now before you panic

0:10:11.308,0:10:16.371
and you think that our irrationality[br]is making public debate impossible,

0:10:17.019,0:10:18.759
you can relax.

0:10:19.393,0:10:23.671
These bars have existed forever, [br]way before social media.

0:10:24.330,0:10:26.700
So what's happening with social media

0:10:26.715,0:10:30.130
is that they are exacerbating [br]some of the effects of these bars.

0:10:30.946,0:10:33.775
Let me give you two ways [br]in which they are doing so.

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First, on the Internet [br]you have much more freedom

0:10:37.485,0:10:39.869
to look for the information [br]which is convenient

0:10:39.869,0:10:41.618
to whatever beliefs you have.

0:10:42.616,0:10:44.943
The Internet is like a giant supermarket.

0:10:45.764,0:10:46.984
For any kind of idea,

0:10:46.984,0:10:50.449
you'll be able to find arguments for [br]and supporting this idea.

0:10:51.344,0:10:54.322
Let's consider a crazy idea as an example.

0:10:54.447,0:10:57.912
Let's consider that you believe [br]that the Earth is flat.

0:10:58.891,0:11:01.542
Well, 30 years ago,[br]you would have been a bit alone

0:11:01.542,0:11:05.388
and maybe struggling to find people[br]to give you evidence for this.

0:11:05.529,0:11:07.799
Today, you can just [br]connect to the Internet,

0:11:07.799,0:11:09.850
contact the Flat Earth Society,

0:11:09.850,0:11:13.580
and this society is going to provide you [br]with elements of evidence,

0:11:13.645,0:11:15.844
arguments in favor of your belief.

0:11:17.809,0:11:19.122
That's another way

0:11:19.122,0:11:22.015
in which the Internet helps you[br]engage in self-deception,

0:11:22.015,0:11:23.861
that you can do it collectively.

0:11:24.422,0:11:27.232
You now have a multitude[br]of communities on the Internet

0:11:27.232,0:11:30.402
that have created[br]informational bubbles on their own.

0:11:31.412,0:11:34.254
In these bubbles, [br]people select information,

0:11:34.498,0:11:36.691
interpret information,[br]and repackage it

0:11:36.691,0:11:39.525
in a way that is compatible [br]with the community's views.

0:11:40.159,0:11:42.784
When a new fact is discussed [br]in this community,

0:11:42.784,0:11:46.755
the images which are positive [br]for the community are reinforced,

0:11:46.815,0:11:49.732
and those which are not are dropped,

0:11:49.792,0:11:51.688
and the nuances are lost.

0:11:52.724,0:11:55.859
These communities build simple views

0:11:55.859,0:11:58.561
compatible with the beliefs[br]of the community.

0:11:59.416,0:12:03.136
So the social media have not created [br]a unified public space

0:12:03.160,0:12:04.979
where ideas are debated;

0:12:04.999,0:12:10.862
instead, social media have increased [br]our ability to connect specifically

0:12:10.862,0:12:14.424
with the people whose views [br]mostly match our own.

0:12:15.606,0:12:17.132
And whatever your views,

0:12:17.132,0:12:19.940
you can find a community[br]of like-minded people

0:12:20.147,0:12:24.667
with whom you can share arguments[br]supporting your existing beliefs

0:12:24.667,0:12:26.210
and not challenging them.

0:12:27.903,0:12:29.466
But what do you want?

0:12:30.466,0:12:35.896
Do you want a unified public space [br]where ideas are debated, discussed,

0:12:35.896,0:12:37.880
and where maybe the best ideas can win,

0:12:37.880,0:12:39.928
or a compartmented public space

0:12:40.215,0:12:44.235
where different visions of the world [br]can coexist unchallenged?

0:12:44.996,0:12:49.939
Well, if we want to defend and support

0:12:50.075,0:12:52.336
the existence of an open public space,

0:12:52.336,0:12:55.801
we need to realize[br]that the problem starts with us,

0:12:56.567,0:12:58.634
with how we form opinions

0:12:58.634,0:13:00.862
and how we share them on the social media.

0:13:01.579,0:13:06.379
So perhaps, in the post-truth era [br]we need some guidelines

0:13:06.379,0:13:08.962
about how to interact on the social media.

0:13:09.862,0:13:11.471
Here are three steps.

0:13:12.277,0:13:13.784
Step 1:

0:13:14.448,0:13:18.749
Avoid the narrow selection of information[br]which closely match your views.

0:13:19.912,0:13:21.502
Make sure that in your timeline

0:13:21.502,0:13:24.123
you've got some news sources [br]which challenge your view.

0:13:25.339,0:13:28.522
Try to find people with whom you disagree

0:13:28.703,0:13:30.783
and exchange with them.

0:13:31.230,0:13:33.205
Listen to what they have to say.

0:13:34.026,0:13:36.544
Try to appreciate the points [br]that they may have.

0:13:37.556,0:13:39.726
Give them a chance to change your mind.

0:13:42.182,0:13:43.409
Point 2:

0:13:44.044,0:13:45.293
Question your views.

0:13:46.162,0:13:48.673
The more you'd like an idea to be true,

0:13:48.874,0:13:52.664
the more you need to distrust the way[br]you made up your mind about it.

0:13:53.386,0:13:55.796
Are you sure that you considered

0:13:55.796,0:13:58.778
all the best counterarguments[br]to the views you have?

0:13:58.978,0:14:02.457
that you've considered the possibility[br]of weak points in your reasoning?

0:14:02.468,0:14:04.212
Try to find them.

0:14:04.986,0:14:07.134
Whenever you really want [br]an idea to be true,

0:14:07.134,0:14:09.494
you may remember[br]that at some point in your life,

0:14:09.494,0:14:12.092
we all liked to believe in Santa.

0:14:14.169,0:14:16.660
And even though we really wanted[br]Santa to be true,

0:14:17.503,0:14:19.839
it didn't make it more real in the end.

0:14:20.156,0:14:22.380
So the more you'd like an idea to be true,

0:14:22.380,0:14:26.199
you need to be wondering,[br]Is it too good to be true?

0:14:26.324,0:14:29.010
Do I believe this [br]because I want to believe it

0:14:29.010,0:14:30.954
or because of the evidence?

0:14:31.499,0:14:33.305
Could it be another Santa for me?

0:14:34.632,0:14:36.008
Step 3:

0:14:36.008,0:14:38.512
Avoid contributing[br]to the distortion of facts.

0:14:39.173,0:14:41.793
When you want to forward[br]information on social media,

0:14:42.046,0:14:44.116
make sure you've read it,[br]you understand it,

0:14:44.271,0:14:46.186
and avoid simplifying it in a way

0:14:46.186,0:14:49.237
which is going to conform[br]with the views of the community.

0:14:49.237,0:14:51.768
Try not to contribute[br]to an echo chamber effect

0:14:51.768,0:14:54.596
within the community of views[br]you are participating in.

0:14:55.681,0:15:00.181
If you follow these guidelines, [br]you are going to do yourself a favor:

0:15:01.362,0:15:04.949
you're going to stop building[br]a convenient alternative reality;

0:15:05.365,0:15:09.057
you're going to avoid spreading [br]half truths and distorted facts;

0:15:09.516,0:15:15.231
and you will limit the self-enforcing [br]groups of confirming exchanges,

0:15:15.573,0:15:19.136
which are pushing people [br]in different informational bubbles.

0:15:19.794,0:15:22.914
You will help ideas [br]to be questioned and challenged,

0:15:22.914,0:15:26.576
and you will contribute to making[br]the public space an open space

0:15:26.576,0:15:28.429
where the best ideas can win.

0:15:29.406,0:15:32.434
Will you allow yourself [br]to change your views

0:15:32.863,0:15:34.647
and to abandon old ones?

0:15:35.892,0:15:37.867
Smart people change their mind.

0:15:38.305,0:15:39.594
Choose to be one.

0:15:40.885,0:15:43.198
(Applause)