0:00:00.157,0:00:05.875 (intro music) 0:00:07.060,0:00:09.316 Hi, my name is Monte Johnson. 0:00:09.651,0:00:13.136 I'm a professor at the University[br]of California, San Diego, 0:00:13.394,0:00:16.248 and today I want to talk about[br]the purpose of human life, 0:00:16.494,0:00:18.430 Aristotle's Ergon Argument. 0:00:19.249,0:00:21.495 The word "ergon" in Greek means 0:00:21.613,0:00:25.337 "work," or "job," or[br]"product," or "function." 0:00:25.816,0:00:28.916 The term is most clearly used[br]in the context of artifacts 0:00:28.916,0:00:29.726 or skills. 0:00:30.521,0:00:32.420 So the ergon of a saw is to cut. 0:00:32.746,0:00:34.745 The ergon of a house is[br]to protect against weather 0:00:34.745,0:00:35.961 and intruders. 0:00:36.218,0:00:38.561 And the argon of an[br]architect is to build houses. 0:00:39.457,0:00:41.045 A connected term is "arete," 0:00:41.338,0:00:43.356 which means "excellence" or "virtue." 0:00:44.123,0:00:45.724 The excellence of a saw is sharpness, 0:00:45.865,0:00:47.361 since its function is to cut. 0:00:47.525,0:00:50.020 The excellence of a house[br]is stability and security, 0:00:50.022,0:00:52.098 since its function is protection. 0:00:52.320,0:00:53.179 And the excellence 0:00:53.379,0:00:55.999 of an architect is the[br]building of good houses. 0:00:57.544,0:01:00.282 Do human beings have[br]an ergon, or a function? 0:01:01.155,0:01:01.877 And if so, 0:01:01.877,0:01:04.694 do they also have a corresponding[br]arete, or excellence? 0:01:05.561,0:01:07.157 Aristotle argues that they do, 0:01:07.576,0:01:09.597 And his argument can help[br]us think more clearly 0:01:09.597,0:01:11.394 about the purpose of human life. 0:01:12.638,0:01:15.597 But before we can discuss[br]the ergon argument itself 0:01:15.715,0:01:17.839 we need to discuss some[br]background assumptions 0:01:17.839,0:01:19.462 about the nature of life. 0:01:20.595,0:01:24.536 Aristotle recognizes four[br]distinct classes of living things: 0:01:24.793,0:01:27.996 plants, animals, humans, and Gods. 0:01:28.276,0:01:30.120 And we'll set Gods[br]aside for a moment here. 0:01:31.471,0:01:33.916 Aristotle defines living things by their 0:01:33.953,0:01:34.961 capabilities. 0:01:35.601,0:01:37.422 Plants have the ability to grow, 0:01:37.459,0:01:39.442 use energy, and reproduce. 0:01:39.874,0:01:42.381 When we talk about a[br]plant doing well or poorly, 0:01:42.381,0:01:44.120 we refer to these capabilities. 0:01:44.941,0:01:47.012 Thus, when a plant is growing properly, 0:01:47.316,0:01:49.879 deepening its roots, throwing out leaves 0:01:49.893,0:01:51.296 and flowers and shoots, 0:01:51.332,0:01:52.654 and fructifying, 0:01:52.980,0:01:54.593 we say that it is flourishing. 0:01:55.233,0:01:58.342 The opposite happens when a[br]plant's capabilities are stymied, 0:01:58.878,0:02:00.736 when a tree, for instance, is stunted, 0:02:00.736,0:02:02.975 or leaves are withering[br]and dying on the vine. 0:02:03.940,0:02:05.698 Botanists and gardeners know 0:02:05.698,0:02:07.259 what is good or bad for plants, 0:02:07.272,0:02:08.014 that is, 0:02:08.014,0:02:09.118 what kinds of things help 0:02:09.118,0:02:11.239 and what kinds of things[br]hurt the activities 0:02:11.239,0:02:13.934 related to their capabilities. 0:02:14.795,0:02:16.868 Notice that it is not a matter of opinion, 0:02:17.068,0:02:18.673 but of scientific fact, 0:02:18.673,0:02:21.074 what is good and bad for[br]plants in this respect. 0:02:21.714,0:02:24.001 Different plants might require[br]different kinds of nutrients 0:02:24.001,0:02:26.414 or different amounts of shade and water. 0:02:26.637,0:02:29.120 But every plant is said[br]to do well or poorly 0:02:29.120,0:02:30.375 on the objective basis 0:02:30.375,0:02:34.216 of the activities related to[br]its specific capabilities. 0:02:35.619,0:02:38.476 Animals, in a way, are like[br]superpowered plants. 0:02:39.101,0:02:41.343 They too have the ability to grow, 0:02:41.497,0:02:43.329 use nutrition, and reproduce. 0:02:43.679,0:02:45.653 These things are just[br]as objectively important 0:02:45.653,0:02:47.497 for animals as they are for plants, 0:02:47.650,0:02:49.993 as veterinarians and[br]zoologists can tell you. 0:02:50.530,0:02:53.673 But animals also have other[br]and higher capabilities. 0:02:54.012,0:02:56.194 For example animals, unlike plants, 0:02:56.194,0:02:58.514 can move themselves around in space. 0:02:59.073,0:03:00.592 Animals that cannot do so, 0:03:00.594,0:03:03.615 whether because of a birth[br]defect or because they're encaged, 0:03:03.830,0:03:06.092 cannot be said to be doing well. 0:03:06.488,0:03:08.067 This is why animal rights activists 0:03:08.067,0:03:11.469 campaign for larger cages[br]or free ranges for animals, 0:03:11.669,0:03:13.813 because it's obvious that[br]it is better for the animals 0:03:13.813,0:03:14.708 if they are capable 0:03:14.708,0:03:18.815 of exercising their capacity[br]for self-movement fully. 0:03:19.676,0:03:20.826 Most importantly, 0:03:20.826,0:03:23.413 animals have the capability of perception. 0:03:23.693,0:03:24.632 They can feel 0:03:24.669,0:03:29.125 hot and cold, smell, taste, hear, and see. 0:03:29.231,0:03:30.785 And some of them can[br]do all of these things. 0:03:32.493,0:03:34.850 Animals that are incapable of seeing, 0:03:34.850,0:03:37.207 even though members of[br]their species are normally 0:03:37.207,0:03:38.505 able to do so, 0:03:38.728,0:03:40.630 are thought not to be doing as well 0:03:40.654,0:03:42.254 as their relatives that can. 0:03:43.415,0:03:44.711 With the ability to sense 0:03:44.711,0:03:46.633 comes the ability to[br]feel pain and pleasure, 0:03:46.633,0:03:48.385 and thus appetite and aversion. 0:03:49.072,0:03:51.171 These capabilities are connected with 0:03:51.254,0:03:53.794 an animal's capability for self-movement, 0:03:54.051,0:03:55.306 since they pursue that which 0:03:55.597,0:03:57.268 they have an appetite for 0:03:57.391,0:03:58.324 and avoid things 0:03:58.324,0:04:00.969 that might interfere with[br]their natural activities. 0:04:01.668,0:04:03.850 Now an animal cannot do[br]well if it is deficient 0:04:04.019,0:04:07.204 with respect to its plant-like[br]or vegetative capabilities. 0:04:07.345,0:04:10.490 But even if it is fine with[br]respect to those capabilities, 0:04:10.490,0:04:12.987 it cannot be said to[br]flourish if it is stymied 0:04:12.987,0:04:15.690 with respect to[br]self-movement and sensation. 0:04:16.389,0:04:17.142 For example, 0:04:17.142,0:04:18.583 if an animal is in a lot of pain 0:04:18.583,0:04:21.473 or is unable to satisfy[br]its desire for food 0:04:21.473,0:04:23.793 because of injury to[br]its organs of movement, 0:04:24.225,0:04:26.185 that animal will not be said to do well. 0:04:26.909,0:04:28.346 For an animal to flourish, 0:04:28.346,0:04:29.902 it needs to be able to move around 0:04:29.902,0:04:31.631 and to sense the world in such a way 0:04:31.631,0:04:33.186 that produces, for it, pleasure 0:04:33.942,0:04:35.867 or at least more pleasure than pain. 0:04:37.065,0:04:38.445 Now let's move on to humans. 0:04:39.131,0:04:41.161 It's often pointed out[br]that humans are animals, 0:04:41.685,0:04:43.402 animals with superpowers. 0:04:43.647,0:04:46.109 But it is less often pointed out that 0:04:46.109,0:04:47.709 we are plants too. 0:04:48.070,0:04:50.311 That is, we, like other animals, 0:04:50.311,0:04:52.491 have the capabilities of plants: 0:04:52.703,0:04:54.511 growth, nutrition, and reproduction. 0:04:55.071,0:04:57.103 And we need to exercise these capabilities 0:04:57.103,0:04:58.250 if we are to live. 0:04:58.844,0:05:00.109 And like the other animals, 0:05:00.109,0:05:03.207 we have the capabilities for[br]self-movement and sensation. 0:05:03.465,0:05:04.961 And with these, pleasure and pain, 0:05:05.020,0:05:06.469 appetite and aversion. 0:05:07.065,0:05:09.708 All life is deeply connected in this way. 0:05:10.451,0:05:12.404 But humans also have unique capabilities 0:05:12.404,0:05:13.969 that no other animals have, 0:05:14.110,0:05:16.721 most importantly the ability[br]to reason and to use language. 0:05:17.663,0:05:20.461 These capabilities allow[br]us to cultivate friendships 0:05:20.461,0:05:21.866 and social relations, 0:05:22.542,0:05:24.801 build and contribute to[br]political structures, 0:05:25.033,0:05:26.322 plan for the future, 0:05:26.626,0:05:28.829 modify our appetites and desires, 0:05:29.180,0:05:30.607 educate our young, 0:05:30.791,0:05:32.706 develop music and mathematics, 0:05:32.883,0:05:34.984 and even to contemplate[br]the nature of the universe 0:05:34.984,0:05:36.747 and the purpose of human life. 0:05:37.620,0:05:39.812 If a human does not[br]have these capabilities, 0:05:39.874,0:05:43.039 they are missing out on part[br]of what it is to be human. 0:05:43.586,0:05:46.208 And if they also lack even[br]the animal capabilities 0:05:46.268,0:05:48.484 we might consider them[br]less than animal, 0:05:48.567,0:05:50.284 at least while they're in what we, 0:05:50.308,0:05:51.446 for these very reasons, 0:05:51.614,0:05:54.626 call a "persistent vegetative state." 0:05:55.463,0:05:57.959 Thus, we can determine what is good for us 0:05:57.959,0:06:00.142 in a parallel fashion to how we determine 0:06:00.142,0:06:01.744 what is good with respect to the 0:06:01.744,0:06:03.367 other kinds of living things. 0:06:04.464,0:06:06.817 Those things that allow us[br]to engage in the activities 0:06:06.817,0:06:09.300 that exercise our capacities are good, 0:06:09.545,0:06:11.668 and those that impede[br]or prevent this are bad. 0:06:12.892,0:06:15.199 Now that we have that background in place, 0:06:15.368,0:06:17.486 we should be in a good position to answer 0:06:17.486,0:06:19.070 "What, for Aristotle, 0:06:19.070,0:06:21.304 "is the ergon of a human being?" 0:06:22.176,0:06:23.732 It would be odd if the[br]purpose of human life 0:06:23.732,0:06:27.178 was related to our lowest[br]vegetative capabilities, 0:06:27.435,0:06:29.732 unless we aspire to being a good plant. 0:06:30.895,0:06:34.028 Thus, the exercise of our[br]capabilities for reproduction, 0:06:34.134,0:06:37.012 growth and stature, and even nutrition, 0:06:37.153,0:06:38.636 however important for us, 0:06:38.788,0:06:41.016 cannot be the ultimate purpose of our life 0:06:41.245,0:06:43.571 any more than it could[br]be for a brute animal. 0:06:44.351,0:06:46.556 Similarly, mere sensation, pleasure, 0:06:46.591,0:06:49.051 and satisfaction of our bodily appetites 0:06:49.091,0:06:52.487 cannot, as they are for brute animals, 0:06:52.651,0:06:54.077 be the purpose of our life. 0:06:55.113,0:06:57.189 What makes cows and pigs flourish 0:06:57.236,0:06:59.129 can no more make a human flourish 0:06:59.129,0:07:01.589 than what makes oaks and vine flourish 0:07:01.753,0:07:03.573 can do so for cows and pigs. 0:07:04.214,0:07:06.128 Even if those lower[br]vegetative capabilities 0:07:06.343,0:07:08.115 must be in a satisfactory condition 0:07:08.115,0:07:10.737 in order for the higher[br]ones to do their work. 0:07:11.922,0:07:13.920 Thus, by a process of elimination, 0:07:13.920,0:07:16.762 we arrive at the capabilities[br]to use reason and language. 0:07:17.376,0:07:19.595 These are the capabilities that define us, 0:07:19.784,0:07:22.915 which is why Aristotle[br]defined the human being 0:07:22.917,0:07:25.074 as a rational animal, 0:07:25.239,0:07:27.640 which is reflected in the[br]modern name for our species, 0:07:27.876,0:07:29.276 "Homo sapiens." 0:07:29.836,0:07:32.737 Thus, the forming of friendships[br]and social relations, 0:07:32.958,0:07:35.301 the controlling of our[br]appetites and emotions, 0:07:35.595,0:07:38.298 the cultivation of moral[br]and intellectual virtues, 0:07:38.334,0:07:40.122 and the observing of the cosmos 0:07:40.122,0:07:41.119 and our place in it 0:07:41.201,0:07:42.756 are the activities that, 0:07:42.955,0:07:44.919 because they correspond with our highest 0:07:44.919,0:07:46.741 and most unique capabilities, 0:07:46.973,0:07:48.514 give meaning to human life 0:07:48.515,0:07:51.218 and represent the flourishing[br]of our kind of living thing. 0:07:51.778,0:07:53.520 The things that are good for us 0:07:53.520,0:07:54.516 follow from this, 0:07:54.691,0:07:55.701 and thus can be determined 0:07:55.701,0:07:58.081 with the same degree of[br]objectivity that gardeners 0:07:58.081,0:08:00.298 and botanists can for plants, 0:08:00.752,0:08:03.537 and veterinarians and[br]zoologists can for animals. 0:08:04.199,0:08:06.778 These arts and sciences[br]can objectively determine 0:08:06.778,0:08:09.273 what is good and bad for[br]those kind of living things, 0:08:09.551,0:08:12.070 and so anthropology and[br]philosophy can determine 0:08:12.070,0:08:14.936 what is good and bad for[br]our kind of living thing. 0:08:15.970,0:08:16.713 In fact, 0:08:16.818,0:08:18.292 the very highest activity, 0:08:18.659,0:08:20.916 the one that Aristotle calls godlike, 0:08:21.125,0:08:22.472 is philosophy, 0:08:22.739,0:08:24.273 because this involves 0:08:24.273,0:08:26.615 the pure exercise of reason and thought, 0:08:27.396,0:08:29.506 just as the Gods constantly engage in, 0:08:29.521,0:08:30.585 according to Aristotle. 0:08:31.063,0:08:33.443 And philosophy engages[br]in reason and thought 0:08:33.443,0:08:36.820 not only in order to serve our[br]vegetative and animal needs, 0:08:36.995,0:08:39.119 but just for its own sake as well, 0:08:39.538,0:08:41.184 for the sake of living a human life. 0:08:41.779,0:08:44.456 For this reason, Aristotle[br]thought that doing philosophy 0:08:44.564,0:08:46.955 was the ultimate end of human existence. 0:08:47.810,0:08:48.780 In conclusion, 0:08:49.010,0:08:51.064 you should be happy that[br]you're watching this video, 0:08:51.242,0:08:53.404 because I have just shown[br]how you are now engaging 0:08:53.450,0:08:55.198 in the exercise of your highest 0:08:55.234,0:08:57.056 and most godlike capabilities. 0:08:57.594,0:08:58.541 Good work.