[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:00.00,0:00:04.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We’ve been spending a lot of time lately talking\Nabout eating, and digesting, and metabolizing food.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.14,0:00:08.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And those are some of my favorite things in\Nthe world! It’s been a really great time.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:08.19,0:00:12.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, as with all good parties, or brunch buffets,\Nin the end, we’re left with a mess.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.74,0:00:16.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I’m not talking about spilled beer and\NDorito crumbs, I’m talking about toxic levels
Dialogue: 0,0:00:16.97,0:00:20.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of garbage that need to be cleaned up before\Nthey kill you.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:20.27,0:00:24.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In your body, a lot of the cleanup that comes\Nafter metabolism is handled by the liver, which
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.45,0:00:30.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,plays a tremendous role in directing dead cells and\Nleftover chemicals to the digestive and urinary systems.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.49,0:00:33.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But your liver can’t actually escort waste\Nout of your person.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:33.94,0:00:37.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Your lungs can lend a hand, exhaling carbon\Ndioxide, and of course your colon will eventually
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.97,0:00:42.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,poop out unusable stuff and old cell-parts.\NBut much of your chemical waste still needs
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.14,0:00:46.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to be sorted and disposed of, so one system\Nsteps in to bat clean-up.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:46.12,0:00:48.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that, is your urinary system.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:48.30,0:00:52.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This system -- and specifically your kidneys\N-- does all sorts of important homeostatic
Dialogue: 0,0:00:52.52,0:00:57.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,stuff, like regulating your water volume,\Nion salt concentrations, and pH levels, and
Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.66,0:01:00.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,influencing your red blood cell production\Nand blood pressure.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:00.36,0:01:03.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But its main purpose -- what we’re going\Nto be focusing on for the next two lessons
Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.27,0:01:07.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- is how it filters toxic leftovers from\Nyour blood -- like the nitrogenous waste made
Dialogue: 0,0:01:07.61,0:01:10.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by metabolizing protein -- and ferries it\Nout of the body.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.47,0:01:14.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And — spoiler alert! — this all involves the\Nhow, and the why, and the what of your pee.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.40,0:01:29.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now you probably know that kidneys are filters,\Nand you may imagine them as sieves that strain
Dialogue: 0,0:01:29.79,0:01:33.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,out the bad stuff, leaving it sitting like\Na hairball at the bottom of the bathtub.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:33.29,0:01:37.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But that is, in fact, kind of the opposite\Nof what you should be thinking.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:37.07,0:01:41.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Most of what’s in your blood is totally\Nremoved by the kidneys. Then your body pulls
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.81,0:01:46.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,back what it wants to hold onto, before the\Nrest is sent on a one-way trip to the bladder.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:46.24,0:01:50.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It’s kinda like this: you don’t clean out your fridge\Nby just taking out the rotten fruit and fuzzy leftovers.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:50.96,0:01:54.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Instead, you’ve got to take everything out,\Nand put it on the counter, and then sort through
Dialogue: 0,0:01:54.57,0:01:57.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what goes back in the fridge and what goes\Nin the trash.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:57.43,0:02:01.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That’s how your urinary system cleans you\Nup. And it is really good at its job.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:01.03,0:02:04.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this morning I decided to go the healthy\Nroute and instead of eating my normal breakfast
Dialogue: 0,0:02:04.28,0:02:07.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of nothing, I had a big 32-ounce protein smoothie.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.08,0:02:10.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,My digestive system did its thing, and all\Nthe protein was hydrolyzed into amino acids,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:10.67,0:02:14.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which were absorbed by my blood, and sent\Nall over my body to build and repair cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:14.72,0:02:17.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It’s a beautiful thing, but not without\Nconsequence.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:17.62,0:02:21.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because metabolizing nutrients -- especially\Nprotein -- makes a mess.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.04,0:02:24.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You may remember that amino acids are unique,\Nin that they have nitrogen in their amine groups.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:24.86,0:02:29.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And because we can’t store amino acids,\Nextra ones get processed into storable carbs or fats.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:29.84,0:02:33.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the amine group isn’t used in those\Nstorage molecules, so it’s converted to
Dialogue: 0,0:02:33.82,0:02:37.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,NH3, or ammonia, which happens to be toxic. So the
Dialogue: 0,0:02:37.58,0:02:43.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,liver converts the ammonia into a less-toxic compound,\Nurea, which our kidneys filter out into our pee.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.15,0:02:47.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Once out of the body, urea can degrade back\Ninto ammonia, which is why dirty, pee-soaked
Dialogue: 0,0:02:47.17,0:02:49.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,toilets and cat litter boxes smell like ammonia.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.52,0:02:54.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now this business of taking out the nitrogenous\Ntrash is one of the urinary system’s biggest jobs.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.08,0:02:58.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Its other major duty is to regulate the balance\Nof salt and water in your blood, and both
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.25,0:03:02.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of these tasks are processed in the whole\Nsystem of tubes that is your urinary system.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:02.58,0:03:05.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So let’s take a look at some basic pee-making\Nanatomy.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:05.66,0:03:10.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Your kidneys are a pair of dark red, fist-sized,\Nbean-shaped organs that sit on each side of
Dialogue: 0,0:03:10.62,0:03:13.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,your spine against the posterior body wall.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:13.20,0:03:18.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Kidneys are retroperitoneal, which means they\Nlie between the dorsal wall and the peritoneum
Dialogue: 0,0:03:18.19,0:03:22.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- the membrane that surrounds the abdominal\Ncavity -- rather than inside the cavity itself,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:22.92,0:03:24.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like your intestines and stomach do.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:24.53,0:03:28.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Each kidney has three distinct layers, beginning\Nwith the outermost cortex.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:28.64,0:03:31.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Beneath that is the medulla,\Na set of cone-shaped masses
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.42,0:03:34.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of tissue that secrete urine into tiny sac-like tubules.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:34.48,0:03:39.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And finally, the innermost layer is the renal\Npelvis, a funnel-shaped tube surrounded by
Dialogue: 0,0:03:39.69,0:03:45.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,smooth muscle that uses peristalsis to move urine\Nout of the kidney, into the ureter, and into the bladder.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:45.53,0:03:49.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because the kidneys’ main job is to filter\Nblood continuously, they end up seeing a lot of it.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:49.70,0:03:54.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, at any given moment they hold over\N20 percent of your total blood volume.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:54.77,0:03:58.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Oxygenated blood enters the kidneys through\Nthe large renal arteries, which deliver nearly
Dialogue: 0,0:03:58.75,0:04:02.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a quarter of all blood pumped through the\Nheart every minute. That means your kidneys
Dialogue: 0,0:04:02.59,0:04:06.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,filter about 120 to 140 liters of blood EVERY\NDAY.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.17,0:04:11.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As they enter the kidneys, renal arteries branch many,\Nmany times, ending in tons of little capillary groups.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:11.50,0:04:15.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So a kidney isn’t just one big filter; instead,\Neach one is made up of about a million twisty
Dialogue: 0,0:04:15.64,0:04:18.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,microscopic filtering units called nephrons.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:18.46,0:04:22.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Structurally and functionally, nephrons are\Nwhere the real business of blood-processing
Dialogue: 0,0:04:22.21,0:04:27.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- which, like, “pee-making” -- begins, in three steps:\Nfiltration, reabsorption, and secretion.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:27.75,0:04:32.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Each nephron consists of a round renal corpuscle\Nthat resides up in the cortex, followed by
Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.27,0:04:37.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a long and winding renal tubule that loops\Naround between the cortex and the medulla.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.24,0:04:41.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The outer part of the corpuscle is a cup-shaped\Nfeature called the glomerular capsule, because
Dialogue: 0,0:04:41.15,0:04:45.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,inside it there’s a whole tangle of capillaries\Ncalled the glomerulus -- that’s from the
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.43,0:04:48.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Latin word for “ball of yarn,” which is\Npretty much what it looks like.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:48.56,0:04:52.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the endothelium of these capillaries is\Nvery porous. So they allow lots of fluid,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:52.50,0:04:57.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,waste products, ions, glucose, and amino acids\Nto pass from the blood into the capsule -- but
Dialogue: 0,0:04:57.39,0:05:01.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they block out bigger molecules like blood\Ncells and proteins, so they stay in the blood
Dialogue: 0,0:05:01.53,0:05:05.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and exit through the peritubular capillaries,\Nalso known as the vasa recta.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:05.26,0:05:09.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, all the stuff that get squeezed out of\Nthe blood into the glomerulus is called filtrate,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:09.89,0:05:14.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is then sent along to the elaborately\Ntwisting three-centimeter-long renal tubule.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:14.53,0:05:18.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Even though it looks like it’s just a tube,\Nit has three major parts, some of which are
Dialogue: 0,0:05:18.15,0:05:20.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,permeable to certain substances, but not others.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:20.40,0:05:25.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,First along is the proximal convoluted tubule,\Nor PCT, which is about as convoluted-looking
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.51,0:05:30.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at its name suggests; then the tube drops\Ninto a dramatic hairpin turn called the nephron
Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.41,0:05:34.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,loop, or the loop of Henle -- I term I kinda\Nlike better, personally -- and finally it
Dialogue: 0,0:05:34.19,0:05:39.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ends in the distal convoluted tubule or DCT,\Nwhich empties into a collecting duct.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:39.51,0:05:43.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All this twisting might make the tubule look,\Nlike, super inefficient, but it actually serves
Dialogue: 0,0:05:43.18,0:05:45.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an important purpose, as you might expect.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:45.50,0:05:49.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Just like with your small intestines, the\Nlong, curly shape of the nephron provides
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.17,0:05:52.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,more time and space for it to re-absorb whatever\Nuseable stuff it can.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:52.94,0:05:57.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this meandering path also allows the parts\Nof the tubule that are toward the end, to
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.11,0:06:01.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have an affect on processes that take place\Ncloser to the beginning, as they pass each other.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:01.34,0:06:05.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because a lot of the stuff that winds up in\Nthe tube are valuable commodities -- like
Dialogue: 0,0:06:05.31,0:06:09.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ions and glucose and water -- and we don’t\Nwant to just pee all of them out if we can help it.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:09.51,0:06:14.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, let’s trace the whole process, starting at the\Ntop, with the proximal convoluted tubule or PCT.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:14.74,0:06:18.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The walls here are made of cuboidal epithelial\Ncells, with big ol’ mitochondria that make
Dialogue: 0,0:06:18.99,0:06:24.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ATP, to power pumps that pull lots of sodium\Nions from the filtrate, using active transport.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:24.67,0:06:28.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These cells also are covered in microvilli\Nthat increase their surface area and help
Dialogue: 0,0:06:28.30,0:06:31.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,re-absorb much of the good stuff from the\Nfiltrate and back into the blood.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:31.38,0:06:35.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The remaining filtrate passes from the PCT\Ninto the loop of Henle, which starts in the
Dialogue: 0,0:06:35.53,0:06:39.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,cortex, then dips into the medulla before\Ncoming back into the cortex.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:39.20,0:06:44.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the form of this loop is key to its function,\Nbecause its primary task is to drive the re-absorption
Dialogue: 0,0:06:44.09,0:06:48.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of water, by creating a salt concentration\Ngradient in the tissue of the medulla.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:48.10,0:06:52.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It does this mainly by actively pumping out\Nsalts in the ascending limb. This creates
Dialogue: 0,0:06:52.16,0:06:56.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some very salty interstitial fluid in the\Nmedulla, so when new filtrate comes down the
Dialogue: 0,0:06:56.38,0:07:01.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,descending loop in front of it, water passively\Nflows out, and into the super salty interstitial space.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:01.70,0:07:04.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Since most of this water is picked up by the\Nblood pretty quickly, the saltiness of the
Dialogue: 0,0:07:04.87,0:07:08.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,interstitial space doesn’t get diluted.\NSo it can keep drawing water out of the next
Dialogue: 0,0:07:08.90,0:07:10.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,batch of filtrate in the descending limb.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:10.66,0:07:14.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Needless to say, this is super important,\Nbecause if we peed out all the water that
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.23,0:07:17.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,went into our kidneys, we would die of dehydration\Nreally quick.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.53,0:07:21.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But even after all that, we are still only\Ntwo thirds of the way through the process.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:21.11,0:07:24.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As we move out of the loop of Henle, into\Nthe distal convoluted tubule, and on to the
Dialogue: 0,0:07:24.83,0:07:28.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,collecting duct, the remaining filtrate is\Nnow officially urine. But there’s one more
Dialogue: 0,0:07:28.72,0:07:32.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,component that we have to squeeze the most\Nout of before we excrete the stuff. Urea.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:32.88,0:07:37.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Even though we think of urea as a waste product\N-- just one more part of that protein shake
Dialogue: 0,0:07:37.33,0:07:39.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that has to be dumped -- the kidneys actually\Nneed it.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:39.81,0:07:43.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They use it to ramp up the concentration gradient\Nearlier in the process, making the medulla
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.96,0:07:47.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,even saltier for the filtrate that’s back\Nthere going through the ascending limb.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:47.50,0:07:51.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in the final steps, after the filtrate\Nleaves the DCT, it enters the collecting duct,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:51.88,0:07:56.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which runs back into the medulla. And while\Nthe salt passively draws even more water out
Dialogue: 0,0:07:56.60,0:08:00.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the collecting duct, some urea passively\Nleaves the urine as well.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:00.35,0:08:05.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Making the medulla even more salty -- and,\Nin turn, more effective at drawing out water
Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.13,0:08:07.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the ascending limb a few steps back.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:07.09,0:08:10.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So there’s essentially a traveling pool\Nof urea that escapes the urine, finds its
Dialogue: 0,0:08:10.98,0:08:14.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,way back into the loop of Henle, and then\Nruns the whole course again back to the collecting
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.70,0:08:17.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,duct -- an ammonia-scented cycle called urea\Nrecycling.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:17.79,0:08:22.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now all that’s left is a kind of last call\Nto selectively sneak out any extra waste -- like
Dialogue: 0,0:08:22.26,0:08:26.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,hydrogen, potassium, and certain organic acids\Nand bases -- using active transport.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.53,0:08:30.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is called tubular secretion, and it transports\Nonly select kinds of waste that have already
Dialogue: 0,0:08:30.89,0:08:34.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made their way into the blood that’s in the\Nperitubular capillaries, ready to leave the kidneys.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:34.74,0:08:39.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This step is kind of like emptying your pockets\Nof any last wads of tissue or crumpled receipts
Dialogue: 0,0:08:39.07,0:08:41.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as you’re walking a bag of trash to the\Ncurb.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:41.01,0:08:44.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that’s how your kidneys clean up the\Nmess left over from the giant party that is
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.54,0:08:49.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you metabolizing food. So if you thought that\Nyour kidneys were just a kinda fine mesh that
Dialogue: 0,0:08:49.04,0:08:51.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,filtered out bad stuff? Now you know that’s\Nnot true.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:51.66,0:08:56.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you thought your urinary system was basically\Na matter of: Water goes in, pee goes out?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:56.09,0:08:57.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That’s DEFINITELY not true.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:57.62,0:09:01.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if you thought we were done talking about\Nyour urine, that is also not true, either,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:01.23,0:09:04.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because next time, we’re going to learn\Nhow your body regulates what’s absorbed
Dialogue: 0,0:09:04.64,0:09:08.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what’s excreted, and we’ll find out \Ncan happen when that regulation goes awry.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:08.94,0:09:13.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But for now, you learned the anatomy of your\Nurinary system, and how your kidneys filter
Dialogue: 0,0:09:13.70,0:09:17.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,metabolic waste and balance salt and water\Nconcentrations in the blood. Specifically
Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.94,0:09:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you learned how nephrons use glomerular filtration,\Ntubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion
Dialogue: 0,0:09:23.00,0:09:27.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to reabsorb water and nutrients back into\Nthe blood, and make urine with the leftovers.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:27.21,0:09:31.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you to our Headmaster of Learning, Linnea\NBoyev, and thank you to all of our Patreon
Dialogue: 0,0:09:31.56,0:09:35.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,patrons whose monthly contributions help make\NCrash Course possible, not only for themselves,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:35.62,0:09:39.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but for everyone. If you like Crash Course\Nand want to help us keep making videos like
Dialogue: 0,0:09:39.23,0:09:41.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this one, you can go to patreon.com/crashcourse.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:41.58,0:09:45.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This episode was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl\NC. Kinney Crash Course Studio, it was written
Dialogue: 0,0:09:45.22,0:09:49.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by Kathleen Yale, edited by Blake de Pastino,\Nand our consultant is Dr. Brandon Jackson.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:49.87,0:09:53.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was directed and edited by Nicole Sweeney;\Nour sound designer is Michael Aranda, and
Dialogue: 0,0:09:53.91,0:09:55.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Graphics team is Thought Cafe.