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Pravednost Michael Sandel

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Moralna strana ubojstva

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Ovo je kolegij o pravednosti[br]i započet ćemo jednom pričom.

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Pretpostavimo da ste vozač tramvaja

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i vaš tramvaj juri tračnicama[br]90 km na sat,

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a na kraju tračnica uočavate[br]pet radnika koji rade na pruzi.

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Pokušavate stati, ali ne možete,

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kočnice vam ne rade.

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Očajni ste jer znate

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da ako se zaletite u tih pet radnika,

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svi će poginuti.

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Pretpostavimo da to znate sa sigurnošću

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i osjećate se bespomoćni

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dok ne primijetite sporedni kolosijek[br]s desne strane

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a na kraju tog kolosijeka je jedan radnik[br]koji radi na pruzi.[br]

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Vaš upravljač radi pa možete[br]skrenuti tramvaj, ako želite,

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na sporedni kolosijek,

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i tako ubiti jednog radnika,[br]ali poštedivši petoricu.

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Evo našeg prvog pitanja.

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Što je ispravno učiniti?

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Što biste vi učinili?

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Hajde da provedemo anketu.

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Koliko bi vas skrenulo tramvaj[br]na sporedni kolosijek?

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Dignite ruke.

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Koliko vas ne bi?

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Koliko bi vas nastavilo ravno?

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Ostavite podignute ruke, [br]oni koji bi išli ravno naprijed.

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Šačica ljudi bi, velika većina[br]bi skrenula.

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Da čujemo prvo ...

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Sada moramo istražiti razloge[br]zašto mislite da je to ispravno.

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Počnimo s većinom,[br]koja bi skrenula na sporedni kolosijek.

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Zašto bi to učinili?

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Koji bi bio vaš razlog?

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Tko bi nam iznio svoj razlog?

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Samo naprijed, ustanite.

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Zato jer ne može biti ispravno ubiti petoro[br]kad možete ubiti samo jednoga, umjesto toga.

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Ne bi bilo u redu ubiti petoricu,[br]ako možete ubiti samo jednog umjesto toga.

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To je dobar razlog.

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Tko još?

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Da li se svi slažu s tim razlogom?

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Izvolite.

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Mislim da je to isti razlog zbog kojeg[br]ljude koji su u 9/11 upravljali avionom

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i spustili ga na polje u Pennsilvaniji,[br]smatramo herojima

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jer odabrali da ubiju ljude u avionu,[br]a ne još više ljudi u zgradama.

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Znači, princip je bio isti u 9/11,[br]tragična okolnost,

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bolje ubiti jednoga[br]da bi petorica preživjela?

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Je li to razlog za većinu vas[br]koja bi skrenula?

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Da čujemo sada one [br]koji su u manjini,

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one koji ne bi skrenuli.

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Mislim da je to ista vrsta mentaliteta[br]koja opravdava genocid i totalitarizam,

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kako bi spasili jednu naciju,[br]istrebljujete drugu.

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Pa što bi vi učinili u tom slučaju?

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Kako bi izbjegli užase genocida,[br]vi bi se zaletili u petoricu i ubili ih?

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Po svoj prilici, da.

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Dobro, tko još?

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To je hrabar odgovor, hvala.

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Razmotrimo drugi slučaj[br]s tramvajem

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i pogledajmo da li bi,[br]oni od vas koji su u većini,

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i dalje žele ostati uz princip,

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bolje da umre jedan,[br]da bi preživjela petorica.

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Ovaj puta vi niste vozač tramvaja,[br]nego promatrač.

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Stojite na mostu iznad [br]tramvajske pruge,

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a prugom se približava tramvaj.

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Na kraju pruge nalazi se 5 radnika,

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kočnice ne rade,

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tramvaj samo što nije naletio na petoricu[br]i ubio ih.

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A sada, vi niste vozač i zaista[br]se osjećate bespomoćni.

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Dok ne primijetite da pokraj vas stoji

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naginjući se preko ograde mosta,

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jedan vrlo debeli čovjek.

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I mogli biste ga gurnuti

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on bi pao s mosta na tračnice

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točno ispred tramvaja,

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on bi poginuo, ali bi spasio petoricu.

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Koliko vas bi gurnulo[br]debelog čovjeka s mosta? Dignite ruke.

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Koliko vas ne bi?

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Većina ljudi ne bi.

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Postavlja se očito pitanje,

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što se dogodilo s principom

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Bolje spaiti pet života, čak i po cijenu[br]žrtvovanja jednog, što je s principom

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koji su skoro svi podržali[br]u prvom slučaju?

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Želio bih čuti nekoga iz većine[br]u oba slučaja.

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Kako objašnjavate razliku[br]između ta dva slučaja?

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Mislim da drugi uključuje[br]aktivni izbor da se osobu gurne.

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Mislim da se, u suprotnom, ta osoba sama[br]ne bi uplela u tu situaciju,

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pa birati u njegovo ime

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da ga se uključi u nešto što bi[br]u protivnom izbjegao,

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mislim da je više od onog[br]što imate u prvoj situaciji

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gdje tri strane, vozač i dvije grupe radnika[br]već jesu u toj situaciji.

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Ali momak koji radi na sporednom kolosijeku,

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on nije odabrao da žrtvuje svoj život[br]ništa više od debelog čovjeka, zar ne?

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To je istina, ali bio je na pruzi.

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Ovaj momak je bio na mostu!

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Možete nastaviti ako želite.

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Dobro, to je teško pitanje.

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Bili ste dobri, jako dobri,[br]to je teško pitanje.

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Tko bi još pokušao naći način[br]za usaglašavanje

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reakcije većine u ova dva slučaja?

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Pretpostavljam, u prvom slučaju,[br]gdje imate jednog radnika i petoricu,

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izbor je između te dvije grupe[br]i morate jednu izabrati

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i ljude će poginuti zbog tramvaja,

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ne nužno zbog vaše direktne akcije.

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Tramvaj je van kontrole i vi u djeliću sekunde[br]morate donijetu određenu odluku,

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dok je guranje čovjeka s mosta[br]stvarni čin ubojstva s vaše strane,

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nad time imate kontrolu,[br]dok nad tramvajem nemate kontrolu.

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Zato mislim da je to malo drugačija situacija.

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U redu, tko ima odgovor?

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Tko želi odgovoriti?

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Je li to pravo objašnjenje?

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Ja mislim da to nije baš dobar razlog

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jer u oba slučaja morate odlučiti[br]tko će umrijeti

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jer ili ćete izabrati da skrenete[br]i ubijete osobu

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što je aktivna svjesna[br]odluka da skrenete,

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ili ćete izabrati da gurnete deebelog čovjeka,[br]što je također aktivni svjesni čin.

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Dakle u oba slučaja radite izbor.

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Želite li odgovoriti?

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Nisam baš siguran da je tako,[br]još uvijek mi se čini da je drrugačije,

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time što ste nekoga bacili na tračnice[br]i ubili ga,

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vi ste ga ustvari sami ubili.

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Gurate ga, vlastitim rukama.

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Gurate ga, a to je drugačije od[br]upravljanja nečim što će uzrokovati smrt.

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To zaista ne zvuči ispravno[br]kad to ovako govorim.

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Ne, to je dobro, kako se zovete?

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Andrew.

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Andrew, dozvoli da te pitam ovo:

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Pretpostavimo,

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stojeći na mostu kraj tog debelog čovjeka,

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ne moram ga gurnuti,

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pretpostavimo da stoji na poklopcu[br]koji mogu otvoriti okrećući neki kotač, ovako.

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Biste li ga okrenuli?

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Zbog nekog razloga to izgleda[br]još više pogrešno.

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Mislim, možda ako bi se slučajno naslonili[br]na taj kotač ili tako nešto.

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Ili recimo da tramvaj leti prema[br]sklopci koja će otvoriti poklopac,

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onda bih se mogao složiti s tim.

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Pošteno, to još uvijek izgleda pogrešno

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na način na koji nije izgledalo[br]u prvom slučaju skretanja.

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I na još jedan način, u prvoj situaciji[br]vi ste direktno uključeni u situaciju,

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u drugoj ste samo promatrač,

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pa imate izbor da se uključite ili ne[br]guranjem debelog čovjeka.

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Zaboravimo na trenutak na ovaj slučaj.

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Zamislimo drugačiji slučaj.[br]Ovaj puta vi ste doktor na hitnoj

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i dolazi vam šest pacijenata

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koji su stradali u groznoj[br]prometnoj nesreći.

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Njih pet zadobilo je srednje teške povrede,

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jedan je u kritičnom stanju i[br]trebao bi vam cijeli dan da se pobrinete za njega,

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no za to vrijeme onih pet bi moglo umrijeti.

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Ili se možete pobrinuti za tu petoricu, ali[br]za to vrijeme onaj kritični bi mogao umrijeti.

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Koliko vas bi spasilo petoricu[br]da ste doktor?

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Koliko bi vas spasilo jednoga?

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Vrlo malo ljudi,[br]samo šačica.

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Isti razlog, pretpostavljam?

0:10:51.440,0:10:55.570
Jedan život nasuprot pet.

0:10:55.570,0:10:57.230
Sada razmotrite slučaj drugog doktora.

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Ovaj puta vi ste kirurg za transplantacije,

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imate 5 pacijenata i svakom je očajnički nužna[br]transplantacija organa kako bi preživio.

0:11:06.159,0:11:09.639


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Jednom treba srce, jednom pluća,[br]jednom bubreg, jednom jetra

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i petom gušterača.

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0:11:15.090,0:11:16.680


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Ali nemate nijednog darivatelja organa.

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Uskoro ćete gledati kako umiru.

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A onda vam sine,

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da je u sobi do zdravi mladić[br]koji je došao na pregled.

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Sviđa vam se to?

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I on je zadrijemao,

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mogli biste potiho ući,

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izvaditi mu pet organa,[br]ta osoba bi umrla,

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ali mogli biste spasiti petoricu.

0:12:03.169,0:12:10.169
Koliko bi vas to učinilo? Itko?

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Koliko? Dignite ruke, ako bi to učinili.

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Netko na balkonu?

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Vi bi? Budite oprezni,[br]ne naginjite se previše.

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Koliko ne bi?

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U redu.

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Što vi kažete, govorite vi sa balkona[br]koji bi izvadili organe, zašto?

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Ja bi zapravo htio razmotriti[br]malo drugačiju mogućnost,

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tako da uzmem jednog od onih[br]kojima treba organ,

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koji će prvi umrijeti i iskoristio[br]bi njegova četiri zdrava organa

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da spasim preostalu četvoricu.

0:12:50.230,0:12:54.639
To je prilično dobra ideja.

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To je sjajna ideja,

0:12:57.830,0:13:00.160
osim činjenice

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da ste upravo uništili filozofsku poantu.

0:13:06.159,0:13:07.360
Odmaknimo se malo [br]od ovih priča i argumenata.

0:13:07.360,0:13:10.240


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da uočimo nekoliko stvari u načinu[br]kako su se argumenti počeli razvijati.

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Određeni moralni principi[br]već su se počeli pojavljivati

0:13:18.649,0:13:20.360


0:13:20.360,0:13:23.340


0:13:23.340,0:13:25.879
u diskusijama koje smo vodili.

0:13:25.879,0:13:27.570
Pa hajde da vidimo koji su to[br]moralni principi.

0:13:27.570,0:13:29.740


0:13:29.740,0:13:31.250


0:13:31.250,0:13:35.710
Prvi moralni princip koji se pojavio[br]u diskusiji kaže

0:13:35.710,0:13:39.110
da spravna stvar, moralna stvar[br]koju treba učiniti

0:13:39.110,0:13:43.139
ovisi o posljedicama kojima će rezultirati[br]vaše djelovanje.

0:13:43.139,0:13:45.480


0:13:45.480,0:13:47.080
Na kraju dana, bolje je da prežive petorica

0:13:47.080,0:13:49.250


0:13:49.250,0:13:52.320
čak i ako jedan mora umrijeti.

0:13:52.320,0:13:53.700
To je primjer konsekvencijalnog (posljedičnog)[br]moralnog rasuđivanja.

0:13:53.700,0:13:56.280


0:13:56.279,0:13:59.459


0:13:59.460,0:14:04.310
Konsekvencijalno moralno rasuđivanje[br]locira moralnost u posljedicama nekog čina

0:14:04.309,0:14:06.549
u stanju svijeta koji će biti rezultat[br]onoga što učinite.

0:14:06.549,0:14:09.049


0:14:09.049,0:14:12.789
Ali onda smo otišli malo dalje[br]razmatrajući druge slučajeve

0:14:12.789,0:14:15.319
i ljudi nisu baš bili sigurni

0:14:15.320,0:14:17.300
u konsekvencijalno moralno[br]rasuđivanje

0:14:17.299,0:14:20.529


0:14:20.529,0:14:22.419
kad su oklijevali gurnuti debelog čovjeka[br]s mosta

0:14:22.419,0:14:24.269


0:14:24.269,0:14:25.789


0:14:25.789,0:14:28.639
ili iščupati organe nevinog pacijenta.

0:14:28.639,0:14:29.750


0:14:29.750,0:14:32.259
Ljudi su ukazivali na razloge

0:14:32.259,0:14:34.259


0:14:34.259,0:14:35.379
povezane s intrinzičnom kvalitetom[br]samog čina.

0:14:35.379,0:14:37.250


0:14:37.250,0:14:39.230


0:14:39.230,0:14:40.690


0:14:40.690,0:14:42.770
bez obzira na posljedice.

0:14:42.769,0:14:45.179
Ljudi su se opirali,

0:14:45.179,0:14:47.819
ljudi su mislili da je to jednostavno pogrešno,[br]kategorički pogrešno,

0:14:47.820,0:14:49.480


0:14:49.480,0:14:50.500
ubiti osobu, nevinu osobu,[br]čak i u ime spašavanja pet života.

0:14:50.500,0:14:51.408


0:14:51.408,0:14:53.509


0:14:53.509,0:14:54.689


0:14:54.690,0:14:55.819


0:14:55.818,0:14:58.500
Bar su tako ljudi mislili u drugoj verziji[br]priče koju smo razmatrali.

0:14:58.500,0:15:00.610


0:15:00.610,0:15:05.120


0:15:05.120,0:15:06.519
To ukazuje na drugi kategorički način[br]razmišljanja o moralnom rasuđivanju.

0:15:06.519,0:15:09.539


0:15:09.539,0:15:10.689


0:15:10.690,0:15:12.660


0:15:12.659,0:15:14.679


0:15:14.679,0:15:16.429


0:15:16.429,0:15:22.429
Kategoričko moralno rasuđivanje locira moralnost[br]u određenim apslutnim moralnim uvjetima,

0:15:22.429,0:15:24.439
određenim kategoričkim dužnostima i pravima[br]bez obzira na posljedice.

0:15:24.440,0:15:27.440


0:15:27.440,0:15:29.230
U danima i tjednima pred nama[br]istraživat ćemo razlike između

0:15:29.230,0:15:33.070


0:15:33.070,0:15:36.540
konsekvencijalnih i kategoričkih[br]moralnih principa.

0:15:36.539,0:15:38.370
Najutjecajniji primjer konsekvecijlanog[br]moralnog rasuđivanja utilitarizam,

0:15:38.370,0:15:40.419


0:15:40.419,0:15:45.919
doktrina koju je razvio Jeremy Bentham,[br]engleski političkii filozof 18. stoljeća.

0:15:45.919,0:15:51.099


0:15:51.100,0:15:54.139
Najvažniji filozof kategoričkog[br]moralnog rasuđivanja

0:15:54.139,0:15:56.850


0:15:56.850,0:15:58.170


0:15:58.169,0:16:02.589
je Emmanuel Kant,[br]njemački filozof 18. stoljeća.

0:16:02.590,0:16:03.860
Stoga ćemo razmotriti ova dva[br]različita načina moralnog rasuđivanja

0:16:03.860,0:16:07.259


0:16:07.259,0:16:08.299
procijeniti ih[br]i također razmotriti druge.

0:16:08.299,0:16:10.669


0:16:10.669,0:16:16.099
Ako pogledate nastavni program, primijetit[br]ćete da čitamo niz sjajnih i čuvenih knjiga,

0:16:16.100,0:16:18.310
knjige Aristotela, Johna Lockea,[br]Immanuela Kanta, Johna Stewarta Milla i drugih.

0:16:18.309,0:16:19.889


0:16:19.889,0:16:22.080


0:16:22.080,0:16:24.030


0:16:24.029,0:16:28.169
Također ćete primijetiti u programu[br]da ne čitamo samo te knjige,

0:16:28.169,0:16:30.069
također se bavimo suvremenim političkim[br]i pravnim kontraverzama

0:16:30.070,0:16:32.010


0:16:32.009,0:16:37.000
koja potiču filozofska pitanja.

0:16:37.000,0:16:40.190
Diskutirat ćemo o jednakosti i nejednakosti,

0:16:40.190,0:16:41.490
afirmativnu akciju[br](pozitivnu diskriminaciju),

0:16:41.490,0:16:43.698
slobodu govora nasuprot[br]govora mržnje,

0:16:43.698,0:16:47.039
istospolne brakove,[br]vojnu obavezu,

0:16:47.039,0:16:50.980
spektar praktičnih pitanja.

0:16:50.980,0:16:55.350
Zašto? Ne samo da bi oživjeli[br]te apstraktne i daleke knjige,

0:16:55.350,0:17:01.040
već da rasvjetlimo, razotkrijemo,[br]kako filozofija utječe na

0:17:01.039,0:17:03.519
naše svakidašnje živote,[br]uključujući naše političke živote.

0:17:03.519,0:17:05.639


0:17:05.640,0:17:07.720
Zato ćemo čitati te knjige[br]i raspravljati o tim pitanjima

0:17:07.720,0:17:09.818
i vidjeti kako svaki od njih utječe[br]i rasvjetljava druge.

0:17:09.818,0:17:15.480


0:17:15.480,0:17:17.599
To može zvučati dosta privlačno,[br]ali ovdje vas moram upozoriti na nešto.

0:17:17.599,0:17:19.109


0:17:19.109,0:17:22.549


0:17:22.549,0:17:25.210
A upozorenje je sljedeće:

0:17:25.210,0:17:28.500
čitanje ovih knjiga[br]na ovaj način,

0:17:28.500,0:17:31.549


0:17:31.549,0:17:34.119
kao vježbu u samo-spoznaji,

0:17:34.119,0:17:38.849
čitanje na ovaj način[br]nosi određene rizike,

0:17:38.849,0:17:42.119
rizike koji su istovremeno [br]osobni i politički,

0:17:42.119,0:17:47.799
rizike koje poznaje svaki student[br]političke filozofije.

0:17:47.799,0:17:50.690
Ti rizici proizlaze iz činjenice

0:17:50.690,0:17:52.580
da nas filozofija uči i zbunjuje

0:17:52.579,0:17:54.220


0:17:54.220,0:17:56.400


0:17:56.400,0:18:01.390
suočavajući nas s onim [br]što već znamo.

0:18:01.390,0:18:03.390
Tu postoji jedna ironija,

0:18:03.390,0:18:09.790
teškoća ovog kolegija skriva se u činjenici[br]da vas uči ono što već znate.

0:18:09.789,0:18:12.159
To radi uzimajući ono što [br]znamo iz poznatih neupitnih okruženja,

0:18:12.160,0:18:16.470


0:18:16.470,0:18:20.370
i pretvarajući to u nešto nepoznato.

0:18:20.369,0:18:22.389
Na taj način su funkcionirali oni primjeri,

0:18:22.390,0:18:23.120


0:18:23.119,0:18:29.029
s hipotetičkim pretpostavkama s kojima smo[br]započinjali, mješavinom šaljivog i razboritog.

0:18:29.029,0:18:33.940
Jednako tako funkcioniraju i te[br]filozofske knjige.

0:18:33.940,0:18:35.640
Filozofija nas otuđuje od poznatog,

0:18:35.640,0:18:37.520


0:18:37.519,0:18:40.389
ne tako da nam daje nove informacije,

0:18:40.390,0:18:41.780
nego pozivajući i provocirajući

0:18:41.779,0:18:43.599


0:18:43.599,0:18:47.419
novi način gledanja,

0:18:47.420,0:18:49.970
ali, i tu postoji rizik,

0:18:49.970,0:18:50.720
jednom kada ono poznato[br]postane strano,

0:18:50.720,0:18:54.299


0:18:54.299,0:18:58.259
nikada više nije potpuno isto.

0:18:58.259,0:19:00.210
Samo-spoznaja je kao[br]izgubljena nevinost,

0:19:00.210,0:19:03.200


0:19:03.200,0:19:04.720
kako god bilo uznemirujuće,[br]kada ju nađete

0:19:04.720,0:19:06.029


0:19:06.029,0:19:07.289
nikada je više ne možete[br]od-misliti

0:19:07.289,0:19:09.720


0:19:09.720,0:19:13.390
ili ne-znati.

0:19:13.390,0:19:17.259
Ono što čini ovaj poduhvat teškim

0:19:17.259,0:19:19.970
ali također intrigantnim,

0:19:19.970,0:19:20.880


0:19:20.880,0:19:25.400
je to da je moralna i politička filozofija priča

0:19:25.400,0:19:29.340
i vi ne znate kuda ta priča vodi,[br]ali ono što znate

0:19:29.339,0:19:31.319
je da je to priča o vama.

0:19:31.319,0:19:34.480


0:19:34.480,0:19:37.079
To su osobni rizici,

0:19:37.079,0:19:40.220
a što je s političkim rizicima?

0:19:40.220,0:19:43.038
Jedan način predstavljanja kolegija[br]poput ovog

0:19:43.038,0:19:44.730
bio bi obečavajući vam da [br]čitanjem ovih knjiga

0:19:44.730,0:19:46.460


0:19:46.460,0:19:48.069
i diskutiranjem o ovim pitanjima

0:19:48.069,0:19:51.769
postat ćete bolji, odgovorniji građani.

0:19:51.769,0:19:56.450
Propitivat ćete presumpcije javnih politika,

0:19:56.450,0:19:57.289
dorađivati svoje političke prosudbe,

0:19:57.289,0:20:02.819
postat ćete učinkovitiji sudionik[br]javnih zbivanja.

0:20:02.819,0:20:06.869
Ali to bi bilo nepotpuno i obmanjujuće[br]obećanje.

0:20:06.869,0:20:11.489
Politička fizofija uglavnom[br]ne funkcionira na taj način.

0:20:11.490,0:20:14.660
Morate dozvoliti mogućnost

0:20:14.660,0:20:19.100
da vas politička filozofija može[br]učiniti gorim građaninom,

0:20:19.099,0:20:21.969
a ne boljim,

0:20:21.970,0:20:23.809
ili barem gorim građaninom[br]prije no što vas učini boljim.

0:20:23.809,0:20:25.629


0:20:25.630,0:20:27.950


0:20:27.950,0:20:30.400
A to je zbog toga jer je filozofija

0:20:30.400,0:20:32.620


0:20:32.619,0:20:34.709
aktivnost koja udaljava i čak iscrpljuje.

0:20:34.710,0:20:36.600


0:20:36.599,0:20:37.759
A to vidite vraćajući se Sokratu;

0:20:37.759,0:20:39.890


0:20:39.890,0:20:42.290
ima jedan dijalog, Gorgija,

0:20:42.289,0:20:44.680
u kojem jedan od Sokratovih prijatelja,[br]Kalikle, pokušava odvratiti ga od filozofiranja.

0:20:44.680,0:20:45.620


0:20:45.619,0:20:47.239


0:20:47.240,0:20:49.970


0:20:49.970,0:20:54.400
Kalikle kaže Sokratu, 'Filozofija[br]je zgodna igračka,

0:20:54.400,0:20:57.980
ako se u nju upuštamo umjereno[br]u primjereno životno doba,

0:20:57.980,0:21:03.779
ali ako na njoj ustrajemo više no što treba,[br]ona je apsolutna propast,'

0:21:03.779,0:21:06.819
'Poslušaj moj savjet,' kaže Kalikle,[br]'ostavi se rasprave,

0:21:06.819,0:21:08.369
nauči vještine aktivnog života,

0:21:08.369,0:21:11.669


0:21:11.670,0:21:16.880
neka ti modeli ne budu ti ljudi koji[br]vrijeme provode u tim sitničavim igrama riječi,

0:21:16.880,0:21:20.080
već oni koji imaju dobro situiran život[br]i reputaciju i mnoge druge blagodati.'

0:21:20.079,0:21:22.319


0:21:22.319,0:21:26.808
Kalikle zapravo Sokratu kaže,

0:21:26.808,0:21:28.690
'Okani se filozofiranja, uozbilji se,

0:21:28.690,0:21:30.549


0:21:30.549,0:21:35.169
upiši se u poslovnu školu.'

0:21:35.170,0:21:38.300
I Kalikle je bio u pravu.

0:21:38.299,0:21:39.690
Bio je u pravu utoliko

0:21:39.690,0:21:42.210
što nas filozofija udaljava od konvencija,[br]utvrđenih postavki i prihvaćenih vjerovanja.

0:21:42.210,0:21:45.009


0:21:45.009,0:21:46.750


0:21:46.750,0:21:48.650
To su rizici, osobni i politički,

0:21:48.650,0:21:49.970


0:21:49.970,0:21:54.089
a unatoč tim rizicima[br]postoji karakteristično odstupanje,

0:21:54.089,0:21:57.470
ime tog odstupanja je skepticizam.

0:21:57.470,0:21:58.990
To je ideja, ide ovako nekako:

0:21:58.990,0:22:03.660
nismo riješili, jednom zauvijek,

0:22:03.660,0:22:09.759
ni slučajeve ni principe o kojima smo[br]raspravljali na početku,

0:22:09.759,0:22:11.390
a kad Aristotel i Locke i Kant i Mill[br]nisu mogli riješiti ta pitanja nakon svih tih godina,

0:22:11.390,0:22:17.220


0:22:17.220,0:22:19.589
tko smo mi da mislimo

0:22:19.589,0:22:23.730
da ih mi, ovdje u Sanders Theatre[br]tijekom jednog semestra možemo riješiti?

0:22:23.730,0:22:26.430


0:22:26.430,0:22:29.460
Možda je samo stvar u tome da svaka osoba[br]ima vlastite principe

0:22:29.460,0:22:33.519
i ništa se više o tome nema za reći,[br]nikakvo rasuđivanje.

0:22:33.519,0:22:34.170


0:22:34.170,0:22:36.590


0:22:36.589,0:22:37.649
To je izbjegavanje.

0:22:37.650,0:22:39.440
Izbjegavanje spepticizmom

0:22:39.440,0:22:41.279
na što bih ja dao sljedeći odgovor:

0:22:41.279,0:22:42.660


0:22:42.660,0:22:43.720
Istina, o ovim pitanjima se rspravlja[br]već dugo vremena,

0:22:43.720,0:22:47.559


0:22:47.559,0:22:49.059
ali sam činjenica da se uvijek iznova[br]pojavljuju i ustraju,

0:22:49.059,0:22:52.700


0:22:52.700,0:22:54.650
može sugerirati da,[br]iako su u nekom smislu nemoguća,

0:22:54.650,0:22:57.169


0:22:57.169,0:22:59.800
neizbježna su u drugom,

0:22:59.799,0:23:02.299
a razlog zašto su neizbježna.

0:23:02.299,0:23:06.500
Razlog zašto su neizbježna je

0:23:06.500,0:23:10.069
da mi svakoga dana živimo[br]odgovarajući na ta pitanja.

0:23:10.069,0:23:16.129
Zato skepticizam, dizanje ruku[br]i odustajanje od moralnog promišljanja,

0:23:16.130,0:23:18.280
nije rješenje.

0:23:18.279,0:23:19.990
Immanuel Kant vrlo dobro je opisao[br]problem sa skepticizmom kad je napisao:

0:23:19.990,0:23:23.710


0:23:23.710,0:23:26.308
'Skepticizam je počivalište[br]za ljudski razum

0:23:26.308,0:23:29.099
gdje mo razmišljati o svojim[br]dogmatskim lutanjima,

0:23:29.099,0:23:33.069
ali nije mjesto za trajno obitavanje.'

0:23:33.069,0:23:35.939
'Jednostavno se pomiriti sa skepticizmom,'[br]pisao je Kant,

0:23:35.940,0:23:42.660
'nikada ne može biti dovoljno za[br]prevladavanje nemira razuma.'

0:23:42.660,0:23:47.040
Pokušao sam, kroz ove priče i argumente,[br]izložiti neki vid rizika i iskušenja

0:23:47.039,0:23:49.898


0:23:49.898,0:23:55.589
opasnosti i mogućnosti.

0:23:55.589,0:23:58.099
Zaključit ću rekavši:[br]da je cilj ovog kolegija

0:23:58.099,0:23:59.629
probuditi nemir razuma[br]i vidjeti kuda bi mogao voditi.

0:23:59.630,0:24:02.240


0:24:02.240,0:24:04.380


0:24:04.380,0:24:11.380
Hvala vam.

0:24:15.440,0:24:16.980
U tako očajnoj situaciji morate učiniti[br]ono što morate da bi preživjeli.

0:24:16.980,0:24:21.259
Morate učiniti ono što morate?

0:24:21.259,0:24:22.779
Što morate, morate, baš tako.

0:24:22.779,0:24:23.619


0:24:23.619,0:24:25.699
Ako 19 dana niste ništa jeli, netko se mora[br]žrtvovati da ljudi mogu preživjeti.

0:24:25.700,0:24:32.700
U redu, dobro je. Kako se zovete?

0:24:33.569,0:24:40.349
Marcus.

0:24:40.349,0:24:44.569
Što ćete kazati Marcusu?

0:24:44.569,0:24:46.960
Prošli puta samo započeli[br]s nekim pričama,

0:24:46.960,0:24:48.980
moralnim dilemama u vezi tramvaja.

0:24:48.980,0:24:51.019


0:24:51.019,0:24:53.049


0:24:53.049,0:24:54.509
i doktora i zdravih pacijenata[br]u opasnosti da budu žrtve transplantacije organa.

0:24:54.509,0:24:56.269


0:24:56.269,0:24:57.559


0:24:57.559,0:25:00.909


0:25:00.910,0:25:04.090
Uočili smo dvije stvari[br]u vezi diskusija koje smo imali

0:25:04.089,0:25:06.889


0:25:06.890,0:25:10.830
Jedna se odnosi na način[br]na koji smo diskutirali;

0:25:10.829,0:25:13.569
počelo s našim ocjenama[br]u danim slučajevima.

0:25:13.569,0:25:18.470
Pokušali smo artikulirati razloge[br]odnosno principe

0:25:18.470,0:25:22.549
koji leže iza naših ocjena,

0:25:22.549,0:25:25.399
a onda, suočeni s drugim slučajem[br]našli smo se da preispitujemo te principe

0:25:25.400,0:25:30.759


0:25:30.759,0:25:34.019
mijenjajući ih u ovisnosti[br]o drugima.

0:25:34.019,0:25:38.920
I primijetili smo ugrađeno nastojanje[br]da ih uskladimo,

0:25:38.920,0:25:41.680
naše ocjene danih slučajeva

0:25:41.680,0:25:43.940
i principe koje bismo usvojili[br]nakon promišljanja.

0:25:43.940,0:25:46.360


0:25:46.359,0:25:50.589
Također smo uočili nešto u vezi[br]sadržaja argumenata

0:25:50.589,0:25:55.250
koji su se pojavili tokom diskusije.

0:25:55.250,0:26:00.859
Primijetili smo da smo ponekad u iskušenju[br]locirati moralnost nekog čina u posljedicama,

0:26:00.859,0:26:06.519
u rezultatima, u stanju svijeta[br]koje proizvodi taj čin.

0:26:06.519,0:26:09.019
To smo nazvali konsekvencijalnim[br]moralnim rasuđivanjem.

0:26:09.019,0:26:11.690


0:26:11.690,0:26:13.240
No, primijetili smo također[br]da u nekim slučajevima

0:26:13.240,0:26:16.440


0:26:16.440,0:26:18.610
nisu dominirali samo rezultati.

0:26:18.609,0:26:22.089


0:26:22.089,0:26:23.399
Ponekad mnogi od nas su osjećali

0:26:23.400,0:26:25.350


0:26:25.349,0:26:31.669
da ne samo posljedice, nego i intrinzična[br]karakteristika čina ima moralnu važnost.

0:26:31.670,0:26:35.370


0:26:35.369,0:26:40.979
Neki ljudi su tvrdili da postoje određene[br]stvari koje su kategorički neispravne,

0:26:40.980,0:26:42.579
čak i ako donose dobar rezultat,

0:26:42.579,0:26:44.460


0:26:44.460,0:26:45.490
čak i ako spašavaju petoro ljudi[br]po cijenu jednog života.

0:26:45.490,0:26:47.200


0:26:47.200,0:26:49.788


0:26:49.788,0:26:52.730
Stoga smo suprotstavili konsekvencijalne[br]moralne principe kategoričkima.

0:26:52.730,0:26:54.569


0:26:54.569,0:26:58.139


0:26:58.140,0:26:59.790
Danas i sljedećih nekoliko dana

0:26:59.789,0:27:00.819


0:27:00.819,0:27:06.569
preispitat ćemo jednu od najutjecajnijih[br]verzija konsekvencijalne teorije morala,

0:27:06.569,0:27:08.839


0:27:08.839,0:27:10.970


0:27:10.970,0:27:16.329
a to je filozofija utilitarizma.

0:27:16.329,0:27:17.429
Jeremy Bentham, engleski politički[br]filozof 18. stoljeća,

0:27:17.430,0:27:19.080


0:27:19.079,0:27:21.689


0:27:21.690,0:27:22.910
prvi je jasno sistematski izložio[br]utilitarističku teoriju morala,

0:27:22.910,0:27:26.630


0:27:26.630,0:27:28.670


0:27:28.670,0:27:32.210


0:27:32.210,0:27:36.400
a Benthamova ideja,[br]njegova ključna ideja,

0:27:36.400,0:27:38.440


0:27:38.440,0:27:42.930
vrlo je jednostavna

0:27:42.930,0:27:44.808
i moralno intuitivno vrlo dopadljiva.

0:27:44.808,0:27:46.329


0:27:46.329,0:27:48.429


0:27:48.430,0:27:50.450
Benthamova ideja je sljedeća:

0:27:50.450,0:27:51.590


0:27:51.589,0:27:54.439
ono što je ispravno učiniti,[br]što je pravedno učiniti,

0:27:54.440,0:27:57.799


0:27:57.799,0:27:58.819
je maksimizirati korisnost.

0:27:58.819,0:28:01.369


0:28:01.369,0:28:02.339


0:28:02.339,0:28:06.329
Što je mislio pod korisnost?

0:28:06.329,0:28:11.490
Pod korisnost je podrazumijevao ravnotežu

0:28:11.490,0:28:14.000
ugode i boli,[br]radosti i patnje.

0:28:14.000,0:28:16.778


0:28:16.778,0:28:18.210
Tako smo došli do principa[br]maksimiziranja korisnosti.

0:28:18.210,0:28:19.259


0:28:19.259,0:28:22.308


0:28:22.308,0:28:24.450
Započeo uočivši da svima nama,

0:28:24.450,0:28:26.399


0:28:26.398,0:28:27.750
svim ljudskim bićima,

0:28:27.750,0:28:31.490
upravljaju dva suverena gospodara,[br]bol i ugoda.

0:28:31.490,0:28:34.620


0:28:34.619,0:28:37.479
Mi ljudska bića volimo ugodu[br]i ne volimo bol

0:28:37.480,0:28:42.308


0:28:42.308,0:28:45.839
i zato bismo moralnost[br]morali bazirati

0:28:45.839,0:28:49.169
- bez obzira da li se radi[br]o našem vlastitom životu

0:28:49.170,0:28:50.490
ili kao zakonodavci ili građani [br]razmišljamo kakav bi trebao biti zakon -

0:28:50.490,0:28:52.579


0:28:52.579,0:28:57.029


0:28:57.029,0:29:02.069
- ispravno je da individualno ili kolektivno[br]djelujemo tako da maksimiziramo

0:29:02.069,0:29:05.838


0:29:05.838,0:29:07.659
sveopću razinu sreće,

0:29:07.660,0:29:11.519


0:29:11.519,0:29:15.430
Benthamov utilitarizam se ponekad[br]sažima sloganom:

0:29:15.430,0:29:18.870
'najveće dobro za najveći broj'.

0:29:18.869,0:29:20.398
S tim osnovnim principom korisnosti[br]pri ruci,

0:29:20.398,0:29:22.989


0:29:22.990,0:29:26.410
krenimo ga testirati i propitivati[br]kroz još jedan slučaj,

0:29:26.410,0:29:28.409


0:29:28.409,0:29:30.620
još jednu priču, ali ovoga puta[br]to nije hipotetska priča,

0:29:30.619,0:29:32.639


0:29:32.640,0:29:34.120
nego priča iz stvarnog života,

0:29:34.119,0:29:35.059
slučaj Kraljice protiv Dudley i Stevensa.

0:29:35.059,0:29:38.329


0:29:38.329,0:29:41.889
To je čuveni britanski pravni spor[br]iz 19. stoljeća

0:29:41.890,0:29:44.009


0:29:44.009,0:29:47.538
o kojem se mnogo raspravlja[br]na pravnim fakultetima.

0:29:47.538,0:29:50.059
Evo što se dogodilo:

0:29:50.059,0:29:51.869
- ukratko ću ispričati priču,[br]a onda bih želio čuti kako bi vi presudili

0:29:51.869,0:29:54.909
zamiljajući da ste vi porota.

0:29:54.910,0:29:57.640


0:29:57.640,0:30:04.350


0:30:04.349,0:30:06.178
Tadašnja priča u novinama[br]opisala je pozadinu.

0:30:06.179,0:30:09.290


0:30:09.289,0:30:11.460
Nikada nije bila ispričana[br]tužnija priča o udesu na moru

0:30:11.460,0:30:12.789


0:30:12.789,0:30:15.288
no što je priča preživjelih [br]sa broda Mignonette

0:30:15.288,0:30:16.240


0:30:16.240,0:30:19.109


0:30:19.109,0:30:21.789


0:30:21.789,0:30:24.000


0:30:24.000,0:30:26.500


0:30:26.500,0:30:28.400


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