[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:00.96,0:00:03.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a tuberculosis ward,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.00,0:00:07.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and at the time this picture was taken\Nin the late 1800s,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:07.84,0:00:10.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one in seven of all people
Dialogue: 0,0:00:10.48,0:00:12.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,died from tuberculosis.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.68,0:00:15.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had no idea\Nwhat was causing this disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:16.04,0:00:18.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The hypothesis was actually
Dialogue: 0,0:00:18.12,0:00:21.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was your constitution\Nthat made you susceptible.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:21.40,0:00:24.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it was a highly romanticized disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.16,0:00:26.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was also called consumption,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:27.00,0:00:30.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it was the disorder of poets
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.16,0:00:32.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and artists and intellectuals.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:32.92,0:00:36.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And some people actually thought\Nit gave you heightened sensitivity
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.68,0:00:38.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and conferred creative genius.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:40.60,0:00:42.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the 1950s,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.76,0:00:45.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we instead knew\Nthat tuberculosis was caused
Dialogue: 0,0:00:45.36,0:00:48.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by a highly contagious\Nbacterial infection,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:48.76,0:00:50.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is slightly less romantic,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:50.96,0:00:53.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but that had the upside of us
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.24,0:00:56.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,being able to maybe\Ndevelop drugs to treat it.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.60,0:00:59.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So doctors had discovered\Na new drug, Iproniazid,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:59.64,0:01:03.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they were optimistic\Nmight cure tuberculosis,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.04,0:01:04.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they gave it to patients,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:04.84,0:01:06.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and patients were elated.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:06.64,0:01:10.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were more social, more energetic.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.16,0:01:12.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One medical report actually says
Dialogue: 0,0:01:12.80,0:01:14.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were "dancing in the halls."
Dialogue: 0,0:01:15.40,0:01:17.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And unfortunately,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:17.04,0:01:19.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this was not necessarily\Nbecause they were getting better.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:20.32,0:01:22.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A lot of them were still dying.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:23.56,0:01:25.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another medical report describes them
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.48,0:01:30.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as being "inappropriately happy."
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.12,0:01:34.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that is how the first\Nantidepressant was discovered.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:35.88,0:01:39.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So accidental discovery\Nis not uncommon in science,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:39.96,0:01:43.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it requires more\Nthan just a happy accident.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:43.12,0:01:46.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to be able to recognize it\Nfor discovery to occur.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:47.40,0:01:50.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As a neuroscientist,\NI'm going to talk to you a little bit
Dialogue: 0,0:01:50.16,0:01:51.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about my firsthand experience
Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.60,0:01:54.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with whatever you want to call\Nthe opposite of dumb luck,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:54.84,0:01:56.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,let's call it smart luck.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:56.48,0:01:59.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But first a bit more background.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:00.36,0:02:03.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thankfully, since the 1950s,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:03.04,0:02:07.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we've developed some other drugs\Nand we can actually now cure tuberculosis.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.04,0:02:10.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And at least in the United States,\Nthough not necessarily in other countries,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:10.72,0:02:12.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we have closed our sanitoriums
Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.24,0:02:15.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and probably most of you\Nare not too worried about TB.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:16.80,0:02:19.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But a lot of what was true\Nin the early 1900s
Dialogue: 0,0:02:19.48,0:02:21.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about infectious disease,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.36,0:02:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we can say now\Nabout psychiatric disorders.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:24.72,0:02:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are in the middle\Nof an epidemic of mood disorders
Dialogue: 0,0:02:27.76,0:02:31.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like depression and post-traumatic\Nstress disorder, or PTSD.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:32.20,0:02:36.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One in four of all adults\Nin the United States
Dialogue: 0,0:02:36.08,0:02:37.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suffers from mental illness,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.08,0:02:41.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which means that if you haven't\Nexperienced personally
Dialogue: 0,0:02:41.24,0:02:43.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or someone in your family hasn't,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.56,0:02:46.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's still very likely\Nthat someone you know has,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:46.84,0:02:48.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,though they may not talk about it.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:50.12,0:02:53.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Depression has actually now surpassed
Dialogue: 0,0:02:53.44,0:02:58.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,HIV/AIDS, malaria, diabetes and war
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.32,0:03:01.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the leading cause\Nof disability worldwide.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:01.60,0:03:05.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And also, like tuberculosis in the 1950s,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:05.24,0:03:07.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we don't know what causes it.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:07.32,0:03:09.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Once it's developed, it's chronic,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:09.28,0:03:10.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,lasts a lifetime,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:10.80,0:03:13.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there are no known cures.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.56,0:03:16.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The second antidepressant we discovered,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:16.80,0:03:19.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,also by accident in the 1950s,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:19.28,0:03:22.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from an antihistamine\Nthat was making people manic,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.76,0:03:24.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Imipramine.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.12,0:03:29.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in both the case of the tuberculosis\Nward an the antihistamine,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:29.80,0:03:31.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,someone had to be able to recognize
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.52,0:03:33.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that a drug that was designed\Nto do one thing --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:33.96,0:03:36.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,treat tuberculosis\Nor suppress allergies --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:36.56,0:03:39.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be used to do\Nsomething very different --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:39.32,0:03:40.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,treat depression.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:41.28,0:03:44.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this sort of repurposing\Nis actually quite challenging.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:44.32,0:03:48.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When doctors first saw\Nthis mood-enhancing effect of Iproniazid,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:48.28,0:03:50.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they didn't really\Nrecognize what they saw.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:50.76,0:03:52.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were so used to thinking about it
Dialogue: 0,0:03:52.64,0:03:55.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the framework\Nof being a tuberculosis drug
Dialogue: 0,0:03:55.44,0:03:57.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they actually just listed it
Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.52,0:04:00.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as a side effect, an adverse side effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:00.32,0:04:03.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As you can see here,\Na lot of these patients in 1954
Dialogue: 0,0:04:03.32,0:04:05.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are experiencing severe euphoria.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.80,0:04:10.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they were worried\Nthat this might somehow interfere
Dialogue: 0,0:04:10.44,0:04:13.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with their recovering from tuberculosis.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:13.32,0:04:15.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they recommended that Iproniazid
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.00,0:04:19.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,only be used in cases of extreme TB
Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.60,0:04:23.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and in patients that were\Nhighly emotionally stable,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.12,0:04:28.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is of course the exact opposite\Nof how we use it as an antidepressant.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.04,0:04:32.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were so used to looking at it\Nfrom the perspective of this one disease,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.52,0:04:35.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they could not see the larger implications
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.24,0:04:36.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for another disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.28,0:04:39.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to be fair,\Nit's not entirely their fault.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:40.00,0:04:42.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Functional fixedness\Nis a bias that affects all of us.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:42.80,0:04:46.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a tendency to only\Nbe able to think of an object
Dialogue: 0,0:04:46.28,0:04:48.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in terms of its traditional\Nuse or function.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.64,0:04:51.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And mental set is another thing. Right?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:51.56,0:04:53.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's sort of this preconceived framework
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.60,0:04:55.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with which we approach problems.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:55.40,0:04:58.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that actually makes repurposing\Npretty hard for all of us,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:58.68,0:05:02.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is, I guess, why they gave\Na TV show to the guy who was,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:02.24,0:05:04.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like, really great at repurposing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.56,0:05:06.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:05:07.08,0:05:11.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the effects in both the case\Nof Iproniazid and Imipramine,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:11.44,0:05:12.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were so strong --
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.84,0:05:15.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there was mania\Nor people dancing in the halls.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:15.08,0:05:18.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's actually not that surprising\Nthey were caught.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:18.24,0:05:20.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it does make you wonder
Dialogue: 0,0:05:20.08,0:05:21.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what else we've missed.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.92,0:05:25.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So Iproniazid and Imipramine,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.12,0:05:27.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they're more than just\Na case study in repurposing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:27.56,0:05:30.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They have two other things in common\Nthat are really important.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.56,0:05:33.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One, they have terrible side effects.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:33.08,0:05:35.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That includes liver toxicity,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:35.72,0:05:38.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,weight gain of over 50 pounds,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.72,0:05:40.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suicidality.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:40.52,0:05:44.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And two, they both\Nincrease levels of serotonin,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:44.72,0:05:47.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a chemical signal in the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:47.08,0:05:48.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or a neurotransmitter.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.28,0:05:51.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And those two things together,\Nright, one or the two,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:51.80,0:05:53.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may not have been that important,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:53.44,0:05:57.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but the two together meant\Nthat we had to develop safer drugs,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.20,0:05:58.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that serotonin
Dialogue: 0,0:05:58.64,0:06:00.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,seemed like a pretty good place to start.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:01.56,0:06:05.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we developed drugs\Nto more specifically focus on serotonin,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:05.48,0:06:09.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the selective serotonin\Nreuptake inhibitors, so the SSRIs,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:09.16,0:06:11.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the most famous of which is Prozac.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:11.92,0:06:13.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that was 30 years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:13.92,0:06:17.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and since then we have mostly\Njust worked on optimizing those drugs.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.64,0:06:20.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the SSRIs, they are better\Nthan the drugs that came before them,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:20.88,0:06:22.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they still have a lot of side effects,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:23.00,0:06:25.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,including weight gain, insomnia,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.92,0:06:27.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suicidality,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:28.00,0:06:30.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they take a really long time to work,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:30.36,0:06:32.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something like four to six weeks\Nin a lot of patients.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:32.92,0:06:35.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's in the patients\Nwhere they do work.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:35.12,0:06:37.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are a lot of patients\Nwhere these drugs don't work.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:38.00,0:06:41.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that means now, in 2016,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:41.40,0:06:43.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we still have no cures
Dialogue: 0,0:06:43.64,0:06:45.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for any mood disorders,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.24,0:06:47.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just drugs that suppress symptoms,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:47.32,0:06:51.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is kind of the difference between\Ntaking a painkiller for an infection
Dialogue: 0,0:06:51.40,0:06:52.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,versus an antibiotic.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:52.84,0:06:54.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Painkiller will make you feel better,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:54.72,0:06:57.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but is not going to do anything\Nto treat that underlying disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:58.60,0:07:00.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it was this flexibility\Nin our thinking
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.96,0:07:03.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that let us recognize\Nthat Iproniazid and Imipramine
Dialogue: 0,0:07:03.92,0:07:06.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be repurposed in this way,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:06.04,0:07:08.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which led us to the serotonin hypothesis,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:08.04,0:07:11.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which we then, ironically, fixated on.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:11.88,0:07:14.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is brain signaling, serotonin
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.44,0:07:15.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from an SSRI commercial.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:15.72,0:07:18.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In case you're not clear,\Nthis is a dramatization.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:18.56,0:07:22.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in science, we try\Nand remove our bias, right,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.64,0:07:25.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by running double-blinded experiments
Dialogue: 0,0:07:25.04,0:07:28.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or being statistically agnostic\Nas to what our results will be.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:28.76,0:07:31.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But bias creeps in more insidiously
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.24,0:07:33.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in what we choose to study
Dialogue: 0,0:07:33.08,0:07:34.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and how we choose to study it.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:36.16,0:07:38.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we've focused on serotonin now
Dialogue: 0,0:07:38.28,0:07:39.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for the past 30 years,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:39.76,0:07:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,often to the exclusion of other things.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:42.76,0:07:44.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We still have no cures,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:45.08,0:07:48.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what if serotonin\Nisn't all there is to depression?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:48.52,0:07:50.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What if it's not even the key part of it?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:50.60,0:07:52.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That means no matter how much time
Dialogue: 0,0:07:52.80,0:07:55.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or money or effort we put into it,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.56,0:07:57.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it will never lead to a cure.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:58.40,0:08:00.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the past few years,\Ndoctors have discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:08:01.00,0:08:05.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably what is the first truly new\Nantidepressant since the SSRIs,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:06.44,0:08:07.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Calypsol,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:07.76,0:08:11.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and this drug works very quickly,\Nwithin a few hours or a day,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.24,0:08:13.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it doesn't work on serotonin.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:13.16,0:08:15.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It works on glutamate,\Nwhich is another neurotransmitter.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:16.28,0:08:17.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's also repurposed.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:17.80,0:08:20.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was traditionally used\Nas anesthesia in surgery.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:21.44,0:08:23.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But unlike those other drugs,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:23.12,0:08:24.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which were recognized pretty quickly,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:24.96,0:08:26.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it took us 20 years
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.68,0:08:29.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to realize that Calypsol\Nwas an antidepressant,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:29.36,0:08:32.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,despite the fact that it's actually\Na better antidepressant,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:32.24,0:08:33.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably, than those other drugs.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:33.88,0:08:36.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's actually probably because of the fact
Dialogue: 0,0:08:36.36,0:08:37.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it's a better antidepressant
Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.00,0:08:39.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it was harder for us to recognize.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:39.92,0:08:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was no mania to signal its effects.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.48,0:08:45.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in 2013, up at Columbia University,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:45.60,0:08:47.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I was working with my colleague,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:47.20,0:08:49.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Dr. Christine Ann Denny,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:49.20,0:08:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we were studying Calypsol\Nas an antidepressant in mice.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:53.56,0:08:56.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Calypsol has, like,\Na really short half-life,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:56.40,0:08:59.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which means it's out of your body\Nwithin a few hours.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:59.48,0:09:00.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we were just piloting.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:00.92,0:09:03.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we would give an injection to mice,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:03.20,0:09:04.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then we'd wait a week,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:04.52,0:09:07.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then we'd run\Nanother experiment to save money.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.92,0:09:10.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And one of the experiments I was running,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:10.08,0:09:11.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would stress the mice,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:11.76,0:09:13.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we used that as a model of depression.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:14.00,0:09:17.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And at first it kind of just looked\Nlike it didn't really work at all.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.36,0:09:18.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we could have stopped there.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:19.44,0:09:22.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But I have run this model\Nof depression for years,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:22.36,0:09:24.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the data just looked kind of weird.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:24.28,0:09:26.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It didn't really look right to me.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:26.16,0:09:27.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I went back,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:27.40,0:09:28.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we reanalyzed it
Dialogue: 0,0:09:28.92,0:09:32.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,based on whether or not they had gotten\Nthat one injection of Calypsol
Dialogue: 0,0:09:32.76,0:09:33.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a week beforehand.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:34.84,0:09:36.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it looked kind of like this.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.88,0:09:39.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if you look at the far left,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:39.04,0:09:41.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you put a mouse in a new space,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:41.56,0:09:43.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this is the box, it's very exciting,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.84,0:09:45.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a mouse will walk around and explore,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:46.00,0:09:50.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can see that pink line\Nis actually the measure of them walking.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:50.32,0:09:53.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we also give it\Nanother mouse in a pencil cup
Dialogue: 0,0:09:53.52,0:09:55.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it can decide to interact with.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:55.60,0:09:58.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is also a dramatization,\Nin case that's not clear.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:58.84,0:10:02.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And a normal mouse will explore.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.56,0:10:03.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It will be social.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.52,0:10:05.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Check out what's going on.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:05.92,0:10:08.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you stress a mouse\Nin this depression model,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:08.84,0:10:10.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is the middle box,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:11.00,0:10:12.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they aren't social, they don't explore.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:12.92,0:10:16.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They mostly just kind of hide\Nin that back corner behind a cup.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:16.92,0:10:20.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yet the mice that had gotten\Nthat one injection of Calypsol
Dialogue: 0,0:10:20.04,0:10:21.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,here on your right,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:21.96,0:10:23.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were exploring, they were social.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.64,0:10:27.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They looked like they\Nhad never been stressed at all,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:27.92,0:10:29.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is impossible.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:30.16,0:10:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we could have just stopped there,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:32.68,0:10:36.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but Christine had also used\NCalypsol before as anesthesia,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:37.00,0:10:38.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a few years ago she had seen
Dialogue: 0,0:10:38.60,0:10:40.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it seemed to have\Nsome weird effects on cells
Dialogue: 0,0:10:41.00,0:10:42.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and some other behavior
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.24,0:10:45.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that also seemed to last\Nlong after the drug,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.28,0:10:46.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe a few weeks.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:46.56,0:10:47.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we were like, OK,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:47.84,0:10:50.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe this is not completely impossible,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.04,0:10:51.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but we were really skeptical.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:51.56,0:10:54.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we did what you do in science\Nwhen you're not sure,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:54.12,0:10:55.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we ran it again.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:56.36,0:10:59.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I remember being in the animal room,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:59.40,0:11:01.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,moving mice from box to box
Dialogue: 0,0:11:01.84,0:11:03.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to test them,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:03.08,0:11:06.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Christine was actually sitting\Non the floor with the computer in her lap
Dialogue: 0,0:11:06.72,0:11:08.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so the mice couldn't see her,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:08.16,0:11:10.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and she was analyzing\Nthe data in real time.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.44,0:11:11.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I remember us yelling,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:11.84,0:11:15.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which you're not supposed to do\Nin an animal room where you're testing
Dialogue: 0,0:11:15.16,0:11:16.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it had worked.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:16.76,0:11:21.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seemed like these mice\Nwere protected against stress,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:21.16,0:11:24.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or they were inappropriately happy,\Nhowever you want to call it.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:24.24,0:11:26.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we were really excited.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:27.72,0:11:31.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we were really skeptical,\Nbecause it was too good to be true.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:31.76,0:11:32.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we ran it again.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:33.64,0:11:36.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we ran it again in a PTSD model,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:36.40,0:11:38.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we ran it again\Nin a physiological model,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:38.84,0:11:41.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where all we did was give stress hormones.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:41.08,0:11:42.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we had our undergrads run it.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.72,0:11:46.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we had our collaborators\Nhalfway across the world in France run it.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:47.68,0:11:50.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And every time someone ran it,\Nthey confirmed the same thing.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:50.92,0:11:53.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seemed like\Nthis one injection of Calypsol
Dialogue: 0,0:11:53.76,0:11:56.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was somehow protecting\Nagainst stress for weeks.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.08,0:11:58.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we only published this a year ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:58.96,0:12:03.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but since then other labs\Nhave independently confirmed this effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:03.84,0:12:05.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we don't know what causes depression,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:06.36,0:12:10.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but we do know that stress\Nis the initial trigger
Dialogue: 0,0:12:10.08,0:12:12.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in 80 percent of cases,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:12.44,0:12:14.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and depression and PTSD\Nare different diseases,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:14.68,0:12:16.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but this is something\Nthey share in common.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:16.72,0:12:18.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Right? It is traumatic stress
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.56,0:12:21.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like active combat or natural disasters
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.48,0:12:23.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or community violence or sexual assault
Dialogue: 0,0:12:23.96,0:12:26.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that causes post-traumatic\Nstress disorder,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:26.88,0:12:29.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and not everyone that is exposed to stress
Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.64,0:12:32.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,develops a mood disorder.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:32.52,0:12:35.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this ability to experience\Nstress and be resilient
Dialogue: 0,0:12:35.44,0:12:39.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and bounce back and not develop\Ndepression or PTSD
Dialogue: 0,0:12:40.40,0:12:42.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is known as stress resilience,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.68,0:12:44.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it varies between people.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:44.56,0:12:47.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we have always thought of it\Nas just sort of this passive property.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:47.92,0:12:50.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the absence of susceptibility factors
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.48,0:12:52.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and risk factors for these disorders.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:53.52,0:12:55.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what if it were active?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:56.32,0:12:57.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Maybe we could enhance it,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:57.84,0:13:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sort of akin to putting on armor.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.12,0:13:03.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had accidentally discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:13:03.40,0:13:05.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the first resilience-enhancing drug.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:06.64,0:13:09.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And like I said, we only gave\Na tiny amount of the drug,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:09.44,0:13:11.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it lasted for weeks,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:11.04,0:13:14.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's not like anything\Nyou see with antidepressants.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:14.28,0:13:18.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it is actually kind of similar\Nto what you see in immune vaccines.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:19.08,0:13:22.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in immune vaccines,\Nyou'll get your shots,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:22.04,0:13:25.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then weeks, months, years later
Dialogue: 0,0:13:25.44,0:13:27.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when you're actually exposed to bacteria,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.80,0:13:30.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's not the vaccine in your body\Nthat protects you.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:30.28,0:13:31.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's your own immune system
Dialogue: 0,0:13:31.68,0:13:35.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's developed resistance and resilience\Nto this bacteria that fights it off,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:35.84,0:13:37.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you actually never get the infection,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:38.00,0:13:41.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is very different\Nfrom, say, our treatments. Right?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:41.08,0:13:44.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In that case, you get the infection,\Nyou're exposed to the bacteria,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:44.92,0:13:48.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you're sick, and then you take,\Nsay, an antibiotic which cures it,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.80,0:13:52.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and those drugs are actually working\Nto kill the bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:52.68,0:13:55.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or similar to as I said before,\Nwith this palliative,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:55.20,0:13:58.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you'll take something\Nthat will suppress the symptoms,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:58.08,0:14:00.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it won't treat\Nthe underlying infection,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:00.80,0:14:04.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you'll only feel better\Nduring the time in which you're taking it,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.16,0:14:06.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is why you have to keep taking it.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:06.12,0:14:08.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in depression and PTSD --
Dialogue: 0,0:14:08.84,0:14:10.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,here we have your stress exposure --
Dialogue: 0,0:14:10.84,0:14:13.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we only have palliative care.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:13.48,0:14:15.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Antidepressants only suppress symptoms,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:16.00,0:14:18.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that is why you basically\Nhave to keep taking them
Dialogue: 0,0:14:18.88,0:14:20.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for the life of the disease,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.60,0:14:22.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is often\Nthe length of your own life.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:23.84,0:14:28.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we're calling our resilience\Nenhancing drugs "paravaccines,"
Dialogue: 0,0:14:28.08,0:14:29.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which means vaccine-like,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:29.64,0:14:32.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it seems\Nlike they might have the potential
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.16,0:14:33.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to protect against stress
Dialogue: 0,0:14:34.00,0:14:37.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and prevent mice from developing
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.44,0:14:40.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,depression and post-traumatic\Nstress disorder.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:40.68,0:14:44.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Also, not all antidepressants\Nare also paravaccines.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.20,0:14:46.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We tried Prozac as well,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:46.84,0:14:48.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that had no effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:48.96,0:14:51.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if this were to translate into humans,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:52.00,0:14:54.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we might be able to protect people
Dialogue: 0,0:14:54.60,0:14:56.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who are predictably at risk
Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.88,0:15:00.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,against stress-induced disorders\Nlike depression and PTSD.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:00.76,0:15:03.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So that's first responders\Nand firefighters,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:03.92,0:15:08.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,refugees, prisoners and prison guards,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:08.08,0:15:10.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,soldiers, you name it.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.12,0:15:12.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to give you a sense
Dialogue: 0,0:15:12.92,0:15:14.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the scale of these diseases,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:15.52,0:15:18.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in 2010, the global burden of disease
Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.60,0:15:22.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was estimated at 2.5 trillion dollars,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:22.96,0:15:24.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and since they are chronic,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:24.52,0:15:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that cost is compounding\Nand is therefore expected to rise
Dialogue: 0,0:15:27.76,0:15:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,up to six trillion dollars\Nin just the next 15 years.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:32.36,0:15:35.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As I mentioned before,\Nrepurposing can be challenging
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.52,0:15:38.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because of our prior biases.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:38.76,0:15:40.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Calypsol has another name,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:41.00,0:15:42.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ketamine,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.28,0:15:44.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which also goes by another name,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.36,0:15:46.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Special K,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:46.80,0:15:49.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a club drug and drug of abuse.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:50.44,0:15:53.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's still used across the world\Nas an anesthetic.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:53.56,0:15:56.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's used in children.\NWe use it on the battlefield.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:56.44,0:15:59.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's actually the drug of choice\Nin a lot of developing nations
Dialogue: 0,0:15:59.44,0:16:01.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it doesn't affect breathing.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:01.32,0:16:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is on the World Health Organization\Nlist of most essential medicines.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:06.48,0:16:10.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we had discovered ketamine\Nas a paravaccine first,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:10.72,0:16:13.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it'd be pretty easy for us to develop it,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:13.60,0:16:17.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but as is, we have to compete\Nwith our functional fixedness
Dialogue: 0,0:16:17.48,0:16:20.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mental set that kind of interfere.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:21.60,0:16:25.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Fortunately, it's not\Nthe only compound we have discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:16:25.48,0:16:28.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that has these prophylactic,\Nparavaccine qualities,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:29.60,0:16:31.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but all of the other drugs\Nwe've discovered,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:32.68,0:16:34.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or compounds if you will,\Nthey're totally new,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.88,0:16:38.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they have to go through\Nthe entire FDA approval process,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:38.52,0:16:39.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if they make it,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:39.80,0:16:42.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before they can ever be used in humans.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:42.12,0:16:43.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that will be years.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:43.80,0:16:46.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if we wanted something sooner,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:46.08,0:16:48.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ketamine is already FDA-approved.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:48.48,0:16:51.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's generic, it's available.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:51.20,0:16:55.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We could develop it for a fraction\Nof the price and a fraction of the time.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:56.28,0:16:59.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But actually, beyond functional fixedness
Dialogue: 0,0:16:59.40,0:17:00.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mental set,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:00.68,0:17:04.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there's a real other challenge\Nto repurposing drugs,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.28,0:17:05.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is policy.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:06.08,0:17:08.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are no incentives in place
Dialogue: 0,0:17:08.32,0:17:12.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,once a drug is generic and off patent\Nand no longer exclusive
Dialogue: 0,0:17:12.08,0:17:14.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to encourage pharma companies\Nto develop them,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.44,0:17:15.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they don't make money.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:16.28,0:17:19.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's not true for just ketamine.\NThat is true for all drugs.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:20.48,0:17:26.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Regardless, the idea itself\Nis completely novel in psychiatry,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:26.16,0:17:30.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to use drugs to prevent mental illness
Dialogue: 0,0:17:30.08,0:17:31.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as opposed to just treat it.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:32.64,0:17:34.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is possible
Dialogue: 0,0:17:34.24,0:17:37.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that 20, 50, 100 years from now,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:37.72,0:17:41.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we will look back now\Nat depression and PTSD
Dialogue: 0,0:17:41.84,0:17:45.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the way we look back\Nat tuberculosis sanitoriums
Dialogue: 0,0:17:45.08,0:17:46.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as a thing of the past.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:47.08,0:17:52.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This could be the beginning of the end\Nof the mental health epidemic.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:53.28,0:17:56.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But as a great scientist once said,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:57.80,0:18:00.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,only a fool is sure of anything.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:00.08,0:18:02.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A wise man keeps on guessing.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:04.00,0:18:05.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you guys.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:05.68,0:18:08.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)