[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:01.16,0:00:04.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a tuberculosis ward,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.14,0:00:07.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and at the time this picture was taken\Nin the late 1800s,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:07.77,0:00:10.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one in seven of all people
Dialogue: 0,0:00:10.40,0:00:12.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,died from tuberculosis.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:12.92,0:00:15.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had no idea what was\Ncausing this disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:15.73,0:00:18.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The hypothesis was actually
Dialogue: 0,0:00:18.30,0:00:21.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was your constitution\Nthat made you susceptible.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:21.63,0:00:24.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it was a highly romanticized disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.40,0:00:26.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was also called consumption,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:26.72,0:00:30.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it was the disorder of poets
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.38,0:00:32.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and artists and intellectuals,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:32.93,0:00:34.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and some people actually thought
Dialogue: 0,0:00:34.47,0:00:36.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it gave you heightened sensitivity
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.73,0:00:40.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and conferred creative genius.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:40.80,0:00:42.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the 1950s,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.93,0:00:47.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we instead knew that tuberculosis\Nwas caused by a highly contagious
Dialogue: 0,0:00:47.02,0:00:49.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,bacterial infection,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.38,0:00:51.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is slightly less romantic,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:51.21,0:00:53.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but that had the upside of us
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.28,0:00:55.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,being able to maybe develop
Dialogue: 0,0:00:55.24,0:00:56.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,drugs to treat it.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.69,0:00:58.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So doctors had discovered a new drug,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:58.78,0:01:00.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Iproniazid, that they were optimistic
Dialogue: 0,0:01:00.80,0:01:03.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,might cure tuberculosis,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.18,0:01:04.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they gave it to patients,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:04.76,0:01:06.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and patients were elated.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:06.75,0:01:10.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were more social, more energetic.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.17,0:01:12.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One medical report actually says
Dialogue: 0,0:01:12.33,0:01:15.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were dancing in the halls.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:15.63,0:01:20.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And unfortunately this was not necessarily\Nbecause they were getting better.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:20.55,0:01:23.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A lot of them were still dying.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:23.61,0:01:25.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another medical report describes them
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.67,0:01:30.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as being "inappropriately happy."
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.32,0:01:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that is how the first\Nantidepressant was discovered.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:36.00,0:01:39.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So accidental discovery\Nis not uncommon in science,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:39.96,0:01:43.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it requires more than just\Na happy accident.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:43.29,0:01:47.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to be able to recognize it\Nfor discovery to occur.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:47.46,0:01:49.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As a neuroscientist, I'm going\Nto talk to you a little bit
Dialogue: 0,0:01:49.76,0:01:51.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about my firsthand experience
Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.34,0:01:54.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with what you want to call\Nthe opposite of dumb luck,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:54.47,0:01:56.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,let's call it smart luck.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:56.71,0:02:00.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But first a bit more background.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:00.37,0:02:03.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thankfully, since the 1950s,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:05.52,0:02:07.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we've developed some other drugs\Nand we can actually now cure tuberculosis.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.18,0:02:10.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And at least in the United States,\Nthough not necessarily in other countries,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:10.76,0:02:12.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we have closed our sanitoriums
Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.46,0:02:16.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and probably most of you\Nare not too worried about TB.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:16.89,0:02:19.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But a lot of what was true\Nin the early 1900s
Dialogue: 0,0:02:19.62,0:02:21.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about infectious disease,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.17,0:02:24.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we can say now\Nabout psychiatric disorders.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:24.77,0:02:27.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are in the middle of an epidemic\Nof mood disorders
Dialogue: 0,0:02:27.99,0:02:32.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like depression and post-traumatic\Nstress disorder, or PTSD.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:32.05,0:02:36.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One in four of all adults\Nin the United States
Dialogue: 0,0:02:36.33,0:02:38.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suffers from mental illness,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.30,0:02:41.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which means that if you haven't\Nexperienced personally
Dialogue: 0,0:02:41.38,0:02:43.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or someone in your family hasn't,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.56,0:02:46.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's still very likely\Nthat someone you know has,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:46.92,0:02:49.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,though they may not talk about it.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.39,0:02:53.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Depression has actually now surpassed
Dialogue: 0,0:02:53.46,0:02:58.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,HIV/AIDS, malaria, diabetes, and war
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.52,0:03:01.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as the leading cause\Nof disability worldwide,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:01.79,0:03:04.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and also, like tuberculosis in the 1950s,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:04.75,0:03:07.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we don't know what causes it.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:07.64,0:03:09.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Once it's developed, it's chronic,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:09.41,0:03:10.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,lasts a lifetime,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:10.93,0:03:13.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there are no known cures.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.81,0:03:16.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The second antidepressant we discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:03:16.90,0:03:19.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,also by accident in the 1950s
Dialogue: 0,0:03:19.56,0:03:23.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from an antihistamine\Nthat was making people manic,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.34,0:03:25.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Imipramine.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:25.40,0:03:29.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in both the case of the tuberculosis\Nward an the antihistamine,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:29.93,0:03:31.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,someone had to be able to recognize
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.73,0:03:34.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that a drug that was designed\Nto do one thing --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:34.28,0:03:36.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,treat tuberculosis\Nor suppress allergies --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:36.64,0:03:39.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be used to do something\Nvery different --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:39.40,0:03:40.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,treat depression.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:40.99,0:03:44.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this sort of repurposing\Nis actually quite challenging.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:44.45,0:03:48.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When doctors first saw\Nthis mood-enhancing effect of Iproniazid,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:48.24,0:03:50.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they didn't really\Nrecognize what they saw.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:50.84,0:03:52.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were so used to thinking about it
Dialogue: 0,0:03:52.41,0:03:55.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the framework\Nof being a tuberculosis drug
Dialogue: 0,0:03:55.52,0:03:57.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that they actually just listed it
Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.96,0:04:00.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as a side effect, an adverse side effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:00.57,0:04:03.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As you can see here,\Na lot of these patients in 1954
Dialogue: 0,0:04:03.90,0:04:07.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are experiencing severe euphoria.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:07.01,0:04:10.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they were worried that this\Nmight somehow interfere
Dialogue: 0,0:04:10.56,0:04:13.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with their recovering from tuberculosis.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:13.42,0:04:15.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they recommended that Iproniazid
Dialogue: 0,0:04:15.90,0:04:19.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,only be used in cases of extreme TB
Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.62,0:04:23.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and in patients that were highly\Nemotionally stable,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.46,0:04:27.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is of course the exact opposite\Nof how we use it as an antidepressant.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:27.96,0:04:32.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were so used to looking at it\Nfrom the perspective of this one disease,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.54,0:04:35.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they could not see the larger implications
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.26,0:04:37.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for another disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.46,0:04:39.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to be fair,\Nit's not entirely their fault.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:39.62,0:04:42.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Functional fixedness is a bias\Nthat affects all of us.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:42.98,0:04:45.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a tendency to only be able to think
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.15,0:04:49.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of an object in terms\Nof its traditional use or function.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.89,0:04:51.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And mental set is another thing. Right?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:51.44,0:04:53.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's sort of this\Npre-conceived framework
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.68,0:04:55.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with which we approach problems.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:55.53,0:04:59.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that actually make repurposing\Npretty hard for all of us,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:59.01,0:05:02.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is I guess why they gave\Na TV show to the guy who was,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:02.42,0:05:04.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like, really great at repurposing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.99,0:05:06.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:05:06.85,0:05:10.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the effects in both the case
Dialogue: 0,0:05:10.54,0:05:11.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of Iproniazid and Imipramine,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:11.93,0:05:13.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were so strong, right,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:13.10,0:05:15.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there was mania or people\Ndancing in the halls.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:15.47,0:05:18.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's actually not that surprising\Nthey were caught.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:18.15,0:05:19.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it does make you wonder
Dialogue: 0,0:05:19.86,0:05:22.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what else we've missed.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.93,0:05:25.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So Iproniazid and Imipramine,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.30,0:05:27.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they're more than just a case study\Nin repurposing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:27.37,0:05:30.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They have two other things in common\Nthat are really important.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.69,0:05:33.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One, they have terrible side effects
Dialogue: 0,0:05:33.13,0:05:35.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that includes liver toxicity,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:35.46,0:05:38.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,weight gain of over 50 pounds,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.64,0:05:40.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suicidality.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:40.69,0:05:44.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And two, they both\Nincrease levels of serotonin,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:44.97,0:05:47.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a chemical signal in the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:47.37,0:05:49.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or a neurotransmitter.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.54,0:05:51.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And those two things together,\Nright, one or the two
Dialogue: 0,0:05:51.36,0:05:53.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,may not have been that important,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:53.28,0:05:55.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but the two together meant
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.22,0:05:56.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we had to develop
Dialogue: 0,0:05:56.28,0:05:57.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,safer drugs,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.51,0:05:58.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that serotonin
Dialogue: 0,0:05:58.73,0:06:00.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,seemed like a pretty good place to start.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:01.84,0:06:03.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we developed drugs
Dialogue: 0,0:06:03.06,0:06:05.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to more specifically focus on serotonin,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:05.48,0:06:09.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the selective serotonin\Nreuptake inhibitors, so the SSRIs,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:09.35,0:06:11.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the most famous of which is Prozac.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:11.35,0:06:14.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that was 30 years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:14.11,0:06:17.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and since then we have mostly\Njust worked on optimizing those drugs.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.90,0:06:19.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the SSRIs, they are better
Dialogue: 0,0:06:19.69,0:06:21.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,than the drugs that came before them,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:21.10,0:06:23.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they still have a lot side effects,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:23.08,0:06:25.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,including weight gain, insomnia,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.86,0:06:28.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,suicidality,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:28.10,0:06:30.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they take a really long time to work,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:30.52,0:06:32.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,something like four to six weeks\Nin a lot of patients.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:32.37,0:06:34.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's in the patients\Nwhere they do work.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:34.44,0:06:37.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are a lot of patients\Nwhere these drugs don't work.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:37.87,0:06:41.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that means now, in 2016,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:41.64,0:06:43.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we still have no cures
Dialogue: 0,0:06:43.66,0:06:45.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for any mood disorders,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.45,0:06:47.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just drugs that suppress symptoms,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:47.45,0:06:51.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is kind of the difference between\Ntaking a painkiller for an infection
Dialogue: 0,0:06:51.56,0:06:53.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,versus an antibiotic.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:53.08,0:06:54.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Painkiller will make you feel better,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:54.64,0:06:58.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but is not going to do anything\Nto treat that underlying disease.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:58.73,0:07:01.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it was this flexibility, right,\Nin our thinking
Dialogue: 0,0:07:01.02,0:07:04.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that let us recognize that\NIproniazid and Imipramine
Dialogue: 0,0:07:04.03,0:07:06.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,could be repurposed in this way,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:06.18,0:07:08.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which led us to the serotonin hypothesis,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:08.21,0:07:12.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which we then, ironically, fixated on.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:12.19,0:07:14.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is brain signaling, serotonin
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.30,0:07:15.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from an SSRI commercial.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:15.87,0:07:18.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In case you're not clear,\Nthis is a dramatization.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:18.30,0:07:22.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in science, we try\Nand remove our bias, right,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.72,0:07:25.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by running double-blinded experiments
Dialogue: 0,0:07:25.18,0:07:28.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or being statistically agnostic\Nas to what our results will be.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:28.88,0:07:31.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But bias creeps in more insidiously
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.49,0:07:33.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in what we choose to study
Dialogue: 0,0:07:33.31,0:07:35.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and how we choose to study it.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:35.68,0:07:38.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we've focused on serotonin now
Dialogue: 0,0:07:38.32,0:07:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for the past 30 years,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:40.00,0:07:42.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,often to the exclusion of other things.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:42.72,0:07:44.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We still have no cures,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:44.75,0:07:46.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and what if serotonin
Dialogue: 0,0:07:46.20,0:07:48.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,isn't all there is to depression?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:48.84,0:07:50.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What if it's not even the key part of it?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:50.82,0:07:52.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That means no matter how much time
Dialogue: 0,0:07:52.90,0:07:55.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or money or effort that we put into it,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.80,0:07:58.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it will never lead to a cure.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:58.71,0:08:01.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the past few years,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:01.13,0:08:01.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,doctors have discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:08:01.58,0:08:06.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably what is the first truly new\Nantidepressant since the SSRIs,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:06.55,0:08:07.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Calypsol,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:07.68,0:08:09.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and this drug works very quickly,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:09.81,0:08:11.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,within a few hours or a day,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.56,0:08:13.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it doesn't work on serotonin.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:13.27,0:08:14.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It works on glutamate,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.50,0:08:16.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is another neurotransmitter.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:16.40,0:08:17.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's also repurposed.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:17.95,0:08:21.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was traditionally used\Nas anesthesia in surgery.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:21.42,0:08:23.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But unlike those other drugs,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:23.23,0:08:25.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which were recognized pretty quickly,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:25.12,0:08:26.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it took us 20 years
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.82,0:08:29.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to realize that Calypsol\Nwas an antidepressant,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:29.56,0:08:32.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,despite the fact that it's actually\Na better antidepressant,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:32.24,0:08:33.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,probably, than those other drugs.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:33.84,0:08:38.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's actually probably because of\Nthe fact that it's a better antidepressant
Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.22,0:08:40.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it was harder for us to recognize.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:40.35,0:08:42.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was no mania to signal its effects.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.68,0:08:45.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in 2013, up at Columbia University,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:45.62,0:08:47.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I was working with my colleague,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:47.70,0:08:49.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Dr. ???,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:49.45,0:08:53.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we were studying Calypsol\Nas an antidepressant in mice.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:53.55,0:08:56.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Calypsol has, like,\Na really short half-life,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:56.59,0:08:59.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which means it's out of your body\Nwithin a few hours.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:59.18,0:09:01.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we were just piloting.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:01.02,0:09:03.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we would give an injection to mice,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:03.46,0:09:04.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then we'd wait a week,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:04.73,0:09:08.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then we'd run\Nanother experiment to save money.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:08.22,0:09:10.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And one of the experiments\NI was running,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:10.13,0:09:12.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would stress the mice,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:12.01,0:09:13.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we used that as a model\Nof depression.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:13.97,0:09:17.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And at first it kind of just looked\Nlike it didn't really work at all.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.46,0:09:19.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we could have stopped there.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:19.50,0:09:22.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But I have run this model\Nof depression for years,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:22.51,0:09:24.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the data just looked kind of weird.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:24.51,0:09:26.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It didn't really look right to me.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:26.35,0:09:27.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I went back,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:27.57,0:09:29.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we reanalyzed it
Dialogue: 0,0:09:29.07,0:09:30.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,based on whether or not they had gotten
Dialogue: 0,0:09:30.84,0:09:32.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that one injection of Calypsol
Dialogue: 0,0:09:32.77,0:09:35.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a week beforehand.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:35.03,0:09:37.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it looked kind of like this.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:37.16,0:09:38.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if you look at the far left,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:38.70,0:09:41.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you put a mouse in a new space,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:41.75,0:09:43.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this is the box, it's very exciting,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.58,0:09:46.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a mouse will walk around and explore,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:46.27,0:09:50.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can see that pink line\Nis actually the measure of them walking.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:50.39,0:09:53.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we also give it another mouse\Nin a pencil cup
Dialogue: 0,0:09:53.54,0:09:55.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it can decide to interact with.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:55.63,0:09:59.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is also a dramatization,\Nin case that's not clear.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.10,0:10:02.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And a normal mouse will explore.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.82,0:10:04.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It will be social.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.58,0:10:06.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Check out what's going on.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:06.10,0:10:07.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you stress a mouse
Dialogue: 0,0:10:07.71,0:10:09.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in this depression model,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:09.06,0:10:10.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is the middle box,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.41,0:10:12.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they aren't social, they don't explore.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:12.98,0:10:16.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They mostly just kind of hide\Nin that back corner behind a cup.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:16.74,0:10:20.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yet the mice that had gotten\Nthat one injection of Calpysol
Dialogue: 0,0:10:20.34,0:10:21.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,here on your right,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:21.72,0:10:24.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were exploring. They were social.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.36,0:10:27.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They looked like they had never\Nbeen stressed at all,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:27.64,0:10:29.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is impossible.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:29.75,0:10:32.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we could have just stopped there,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:32.74,0:10:37.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but Christine had also used\NCalypsol before as anesthesia,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:37.02,0:10:39.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a few years ago she had seen\Nthat it seemed to have
Dialogue: 0,0:10:39.26,0:10:42.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,some weird effects on cells\Nand some other behavior
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.20,0:10:44.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that also seemed to last
Dialogue: 0,0:10:44.07,0:10:47.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,long after the drug, maybe a few weeks.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:47.55,0:10:48.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we were like, okay,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:48.40,0:10:50.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe this is not completely impossible,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.30,0:10:52.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but we were really skeptical.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:52.07,0:10:54.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we did what you do in science\Nwhen you're not sure,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:54.40,0:10:56.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we ran it again.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:56.59,0:10:59.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I remember being in the animal room
Dialogue: 0,0:10:59.68,0:11:02.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,moving mice from box to box
Dialogue: 0,0:11:02.11,0:11:03.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to test them,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:03.15,0:11:06.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Christine was actually sitting\Non the floor with the computer in her lap
Dialogue: 0,0:11:06.91,0:11:08.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so the mice couldn't see her,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:08.47,0:11:10.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and she was analyzing\Nthe data in real time.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.61,0:11:12.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I remember us yelling,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:12.32,0:11:14.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which you're not supposed to do\Nin an animal room where you're testing
Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.96,0:11:17.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it had worked.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:17.28,0:11:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seemed like these mice\Nwere protected against stress,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:21.00,0:11:24.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or they were inappropriately happy,\Nhowever you want to call it.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:24.22,0:11:27.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we we really excited.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:27.92,0:11:29.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we were really skeptical,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:29.98,0:11:32.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it was too good to be true.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:32.10,0:11:33.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we ran it again.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:33.88,0:11:36.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we ran it again\Nin a PTSD model,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:36.56,0:11:39.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we ran it again\Nin a physiological model,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:39.06,0:11:41.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where all we did was give stress hormones.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:41.37,0:11:42.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we had our undergrads run it.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.96,0:11:47.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then we had our collaborators\Nhalfway across the world in France run it.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:47.48,0:11:51.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And every time someone ran it,\Nthey confirmed the same thing.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:51.21,0:11:54.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It seemed like this\None injection of Calypsol
Dialogue: 0,0:11:54.03,0:11:57.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was somehow protecting\Nagainst stress for weeks.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:57.44,0:11:58.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we only published this a year ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:58.82,0:12:04.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but since then other labs\Nhave independently confirmed this effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:04.15,0:12:05.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we don't know what causes depression,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:05.94,0:12:12.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but we do know that stress is the\Ninitial trigger in 80 percent of cases,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:12.63,0:12:14.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and depression and PTSD\Nare different diseases,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:14.90,0:12:16.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but this is something\Nthey share in common.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:16.69,0:12:18.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Right? It is traumatic stress
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.70,0:12:21.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like active combat or natural disasters
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.64,0:12:24.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or community violence or sexual assault
Dialogue: 0,0:12:24.21,0:12:26.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that causes post-traumatic\Nstress disorder,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:26.90,0:12:30.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and not everyone that is exposed to stress
Dialogue: 0,0:12:30.28,0:12:32.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,develops a mood disorder.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:32.66,0:12:35.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this ability to experience stress\Nand be resilient
Dialogue: 0,0:12:35.82,0:12:40.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and bounce back and not develop\Ndepression or PTSD
Dialogue: 0,0:12:40.22,0:12:42.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is known as stress resilience,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:42.100,0:12:45.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and in varies between people.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:45.02,0:12:47.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we have always thought of it\Nas just sort of this passive property.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:47.77,0:12:50.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Right? It's the absence\Nof susceptibility factors
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.86,0:12:53.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and risk factors for these disorders.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:53.31,0:12:56.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what if it were active?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:56.12,0:12:58.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Maybe we could enhance it,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:58.10,0:13:01.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sort of akin to putting on armor.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.24,0:13:03.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We had accidentally discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:13:03.59,0:13:06.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the first resilience-enhancing drug.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:06.68,0:13:09.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And like I said, we only gave\Na tiny amount of the drug,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:09.70,0:13:11.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it lasted for weeks,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:11.20,0:13:14.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's not like anything you see\Nwith antidepressants.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:14.40,0:13:19.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it is actually kind of similar\Nto what you see in immune vaccines.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:19.16,0:13:22.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So in immune vaccines, right,\Nyou'll get your shots,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:22.15,0:13:25.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then weeks, months, years later
Dialogue: 0,0:13:25.84,0:13:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when you're actually exposed to bacteria,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:28.00,0:13:30.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's not the vaccine in your body\Nthat protects you.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:30.64,0:13:31.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's your own immune system
Dialogue: 0,0:13:31.94,0:13:36.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's developed resistance and resilience\Nto this bacteria, that fights it off,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:36.07,0:13:39.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you actually never get the infection,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.35,0:13:41.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is very different from, say,\Nour treatments. Right?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:41.37,0:13:45.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In that case, you get the infection,\Nyou're exposed to the bacteria,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:45.27,0:13:49.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you're sick, and then you take,\Nsay, an antibiotic which cures it,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:49.07,0:13:52.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and those drugs are actually working\Nto kill the bacteria.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:52.93,0:13:55.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or similar to as I said before, right,\Nwith this palliatave,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:55.48,0:13:58.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you'll take something that will\Nsuppress the symptoms,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:58.10,0:14:00.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it won't treat\Nthe underlying infection,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:00.91,0:14:02.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you'll only feel better
Dialogue: 0,0:14:02.59,0:14:04.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,during the time in which you're taking it,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.17,0:14:06.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is why you have to keep taking it.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:06.10,0:14:09.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in depression, right, and PTSD,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:09.20,0:14:10.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,here we have your stress exposure,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:10.81,0:14:13.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we only have palliative care.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:13.68,0:14:16.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Antidepressants only suppress symptoms,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:16.04,0:14:18.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that is why you basically\Nhave to keep taking them
Dialogue: 0,0:14:18.90,0:14:20.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for the life of the disease,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.75,0:14:24.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is often the length\Nof your own life.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:24.09,0:14:28.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we're calling our resilience\Nenhancing drugs "paravaccines,"
Dialogue: 0,0:14:28.36,0:14:29.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which means vaccine-like,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:29.81,0:14:32.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it seems like they might\Nhave the potential
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.20,0:14:34.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to protect against stress
Dialogue: 0,0:14:34.16,0:14:37.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and prevent mice from developing
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.14,0:14:41.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,depression and post-traumatic\Nstress disorder.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:41.08,0:14:44.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Also, not all antidepressants\Nare also paravaccines.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:44.07,0:14:46.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We tried Prozac as well,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:46.71,0:14:49.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that had no effect.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:49.23,0:14:51.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if this were to translate into humans,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:51.65,0:14:54.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we might be able to protect people
Dialogue: 0,0:14:54.77,0:14:56.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who are predictably at risk
Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.86,0:15:00.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,against stress-induced disorders\Nlike depression and PTSD.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:00.86,0:15:03.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So that's first responders\Nand firefighters,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:03.98,0:15:08.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,refugees, prisoners and prison guards,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:08.09,0:15:10.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,soldiers, you name it.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:10.98,0:15:12.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to give you a sense
Dialogue: 0,0:15:12.60,0:15:15.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the scale of these diseases,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:15.50,0:15:18.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in 2010, the global burden of disease
Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.82,0:15:23.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was estimated at 2.5 trillion dollars,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:23.15,0:15:24.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and since they are chronic,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:24.68,0:15:27.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that cost is compounding\Nand is therefore expected to rise
Dialogue: 0,0:15:27.90,0:15:32.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,up to six trillion dollars\Nin just the next 15 years.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:32.05,0:15:35.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,As I mentioned before,\Nrepurposing can be challenging
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.42,0:15:39.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because of our prior biases.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:39.10,0:15:42.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Calypsol has another name,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:42.20,0:15:43.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ketamine,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.88,0:15:45.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which also goes by another name,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.70,0:15:47.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Special K,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:47.05,0:15:50.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a club drug and drug of abuse.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:50.17,0:15:53.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's still used across the world\Nas an anesthetic.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:53.72,0:15:56.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's used in children.\NWe use it on the battlefield.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:56.57,0:15:59.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's actually the drug of choice\Nin a lot of developing nations
Dialogue: 0,0:15:59.33,0:16:01.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it doesn't affect breathing.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:01.40,0:16:06.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is on the World Health Organization\Nlist of most essential medicines.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:06.73,0:16:10.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we had discovered Ketamine\Nas a paravaccine first,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:10.43,0:16:13.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it'd be pretty easy for us to develop it,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:13.36,0:16:17.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but as is, we have to compete\Nwith our functional fixedness
Dialogue: 0,0:16:17.10,0:16:21.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mental set that kind of interfere.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:21.69,0:16:25.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Fortunately, it's not the only compound\Nwe have discovered
Dialogue: 0,0:16:25.19,0:16:29.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that has these prophylactic,\Nparavaccine qualities,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:29.45,0:16:31.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but all of the other\Ndrugs we've discovered,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:31.82,0:16:34.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or compounds if you will,\Nthey're totally new,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.96,0:16:38.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they have to go through\Nthe entire FDA approval process,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:38.45,0:16:39.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if they make it,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:39.85,0:16:42.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,before they can ever be used in humans.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:42.23,0:16:43.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that will be years.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:43.94,0:16:46.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if we want something sooner,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:46.32,0:16:48.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ketamine is already FDA-approved.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:48.68,0:16:51.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's generic, it's available.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:51.03,0:16:56.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We could develop it for a fraction\Nof the price and a fraction of the time.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:56.39,0:16:59.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But actually, beyond functional fixedness
Dialogue: 0,0:16:59.29,0:17:01.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mental set,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:01.02,0:17:04.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there's a real other challenge\Nto repurposing drugs,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.12,0:17:06.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is policy.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:06.32,0:17:08.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are no incentives in place
Dialogue: 0,0:17:08.40,0:17:12.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,once a drug is generic and off patent\Nand no longer exclusive
Dialogue: 0,0:17:12.12,0:17:14.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to encourage pharma companies\Nto develop them,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.80,0:17:16.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they don't make money.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:16.30,0:17:18.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's not true for just Ketamine.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:18.34,0:17:20.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That is true for all drugs.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:20.62,0:17:26.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Regardless, the idea itself\Nis completely novel in psychiatry,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:26.36,0:17:30.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to use drugs to prevent mental illness
Dialogue: 0,0:17:30.19,0:17:32.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as opposed to just treat it.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:32.19,0:17:34.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is possible
Dialogue: 0,0:17:34.02,0:17:38.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that 20, 50, 100 years from now,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:38.12,0:17:42.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we will look back now\Nat depression and PTSD
Dialogue: 0,0:17:42.03,0:17:44.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the way we look back\Nat tuberculosis sanitariums
Dialogue: 0,0:17:44.98,0:17:47.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as a thing of the past.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:47.31,0:17:53.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This could be the beginning\Nof the end of mental health epidemic.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:53.38,0:17:57.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But as a great scientist once said,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:57.02,0:18:00.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,only a fool is sure of anything.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:00.38,0:18:04.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A wise man keeps on guessing.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:04.36,0:18:05.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you guys.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:05.77,0:18:10.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)