0:00:06.610,0:00:09.391 Thank you. It's quite a privilege[br]to be here today. 0:00:10.097,0:00:14.138 I'm going to start with this picture here[br]and see if anyone in this room - 0:00:14.331,0:00:16.138 let's start with a show of hands - 0:00:16.138,0:00:18.186 knows what this picture is depicting. 0:00:19.915,0:00:21.443 Does anyone know what this is? 0:00:21.443,0:00:25.267 This is the feeling that you have[br]after you've left the couch 0:00:25.267,0:00:28.884 with a clear idea in mind about[br]what you wanted to get in the kitchen. 0:00:28.884,0:00:29.924 (Laughter) 0:00:29.924,0:00:33.885 You arrive there, look in the refrigerator[br]and have no idea what you're doing. 0:00:33.885,0:00:34.903 (Laughter) 0:00:34.903,0:00:37.109 Has anyone in this room[br]ever experienced this? 0:00:37.211,0:00:39.592 Don't be shy if you have.[br]You could share with us. 0:00:40.221,0:00:41.499 How amazing is that, 0:00:41.568,0:00:43.934 that our magnificent brains[br]could let us down, 0:00:43.934,0:00:46.931 that we could know exactly[br]what we want, one single item, 0:00:46.931,0:00:49.343 and just seven seconds later,[br]we don't remember it. 0:00:49.343,0:00:53.017 Clearly, we have the ability to remember[br]a single item for seven seconds. 0:00:53.019,0:00:54.289 How is that possible? 0:00:54.401,0:00:56.646 How is it possible[br]that our brains could fail us 0:00:56.754,0:00:59.699 in that very easy task[br]of just holding one thing in mind? 0:01:00.599,0:01:03.314 The brain is the most remarkable[br]structure we're aware of. 0:01:03.375,0:01:06.292 It's capable of incredibly rapid[br]parallel processing, 0:01:06.292,0:01:09.521 allowing us to interpret[br]complex stimuli in our environment 0:01:09.521,0:01:11.058 within a tenth of a second. 0:01:11.204,0:01:12.262 Even computers, 0:01:12.494,0:01:14.276 which are designed to try to do this, 0:01:14.276,0:01:16.208 have an inability to do that. 0:01:16.491,0:01:20.119 Plus, we store a massive amount of[br]information over the course of our lives, 0:01:20.119,0:01:23.250 by some estimates,[br]a billion bits of information - 0:01:23.356,0:01:26.785 that's 50,000 times the text[br]stored in the library of Congress. 0:01:27.528,0:01:31.391 Despite living in a rather small space,[br]the brain is a massive structure, 0:01:31.584,0:01:34.584 having approximately[br]a hundred billion neurons - 0:01:34.762,0:01:38.283 that's on the order of stars[br]in the core of our Milky Way galaxy. 0:01:38.610,0:01:40.138 What's even more impressive 0:01:40.138,0:01:44.260 is that there are hundreds of trillions[br]of connections between these neurons, 0:01:44.260,0:01:50.343 creating a staggering network[br]of very, very intricate complexity. 0:01:51.277,0:01:54.300 But I don't have to tell you[br]a lot of cool facts about the brain 0:01:54.300,0:01:56.636 for you to realize how amazing it is: 0:01:56.636,0:01:59.115 every emotion you feel,[br]every thought you have, 0:01:59.115,0:02:02.333 every sensation you experience,[br]every move you make, 0:02:02.333,0:02:04.071 your very sense of identity - 0:02:04.071,0:02:06.923 all emerges from[br]the function of our brains. 0:02:07.915,0:02:10.867 Despite that, the brain[br]has some very distinct limitations. 0:02:11.044,0:02:12.759 I'll be talking about three of them. 0:02:12.909,0:02:14.663 The first is attention. 0:02:14.963,0:02:18.566 We know, just based on our experience[br]and now an incredible amount of data, 0:02:18.576,0:02:21.547 that we cannot distribute our attention[br]everywhere, infinitely. 0:02:21.554,0:02:25.159 We can selectively focus our attention,[br]and that's what it's required to do: 0:02:25.159,0:02:29.365 that we direct our resources[br]to what our goals are guiding us towards. 0:02:29.963,0:02:32.652 Another limitation is something[br]known as working memory. 0:02:32.815,0:02:35.732 Working memory is online memory,[br]not long-term memory. 0:02:35.732,0:02:37.895 It's the memory you use[br]to guide your actions; 0:02:37.895,0:02:41.780 it happens during a conversation[br]to carry the thread of what's going on. 0:02:41.849,0:02:44.163 It's also the type[br]of the memory that you use -- 0:02:44.163,0:02:47.744 in the past, when someone gave you[br]a phone number instead of send it to you, 0:02:47.744,0:02:50.507 you had to hold it in mind[br]until you got it into the phone. 0:02:50.507,0:02:53.647 We know that there are very strict[br]limits on this capacity, 0:02:53.657,0:02:56.406 and they decrease as information[br]becomes more complex. 0:02:57.454,0:02:59.287 Another limitation is speed. 0:02:59.457,0:03:02.558 Although, as I described, our brains[br]and certainly the neurons, 0:03:02.562,0:03:06.511 if you look down at a high resolution,[br]are capable of very rapid processing. 0:03:06.511,0:03:09.104 Because our brain functions[br]as this massive network, 0:03:09.414,0:03:11.402 when you have very complex operations, 0:03:11.601,0:03:15.647 speed of all these areas communicating[br]with each other becomes a limitation. 0:03:16.456,0:03:19.149 So these three limitations[br]on our brain's abilities 0:03:19.194,0:03:22.264 leads to a sensitivity to interference. 0:03:22.538,0:03:24.285 I'm going to describe what that is. 0:03:24.285,0:03:27.686 We went and we asked folks[br]when they had this experience - 0:03:27.686,0:03:29.440 and almost everyone describes this; 0:03:29.440,0:03:33.407 it increases as you get older,[br]for those of you that had not noticed - 0:03:33.408,0:03:34.349 What happens? 0:03:34.349,0:03:38.648 What led you to find your way[br]to the kitchen with a clear idea in mind 0:03:38.716,0:03:41.645 and when you got there[br]you didn't know what you were doing, 0:03:41.740,0:03:44.355 and you could not remember[br]what you were trying to get? 0:03:44.657,0:03:48.276 And people describe in their[br]best experience what is happening, 0:03:48.399,0:03:50.602 and we built a conceptual[br]framework from this. 0:03:50.666,0:03:53.216 And then we study it in our lab,[br]I'm a neuroscientist, 0:03:53.275,0:03:55.728 we use tools to study[br]how the brain functions, 0:03:55.891,0:03:58.253 and how that leads[br]to higher-order behaviors. 0:03:58.287,0:04:01.601 So we built the framework based on[br]people's anecdotes and experiences, 0:04:01.601,0:04:05.374 and then tried to pursue it empirically[br]and see if these were really mechanisms 0:04:05.375,0:04:08.502 that influence behavior[br]in the way people experience. 0:04:08.837,0:04:10.643 So this is how the framework goes: 0:04:10.643,0:04:13.526 we see that there's two types[br]of interference, generally - 0:04:13.527,0:04:16.569 internal interference[br]and externally induced interference. 0:04:16.692,0:04:21.394 We could split those each into different[br]types of interference based on your goals. 0:04:21.613,0:04:24.806 So if the information is totally[br]irrelevant to you, 0:04:24.828,0:04:26.506 we consider it a distraction. 0:04:26.697,0:04:29.330 Let's say you're at a restaurant[br]having a conversation. 0:04:29.330,0:04:32.614 If you have any hopes of remembering[br]the details of that conversation, 0:04:32.614,0:04:35.526 you know you're very busy[br]suppressing the chatter in the room, 0:04:35.526,0:04:39.051 maybe the waiter is taking[br]an order at the next table, 0:04:39.051,0:04:40.834 you're just trying to block that out, 0:04:40.834,0:04:42.182 it's irrelevant information, 0:04:42.182,0:04:43.596 you're trying to suppress it. 0:04:43.596,0:04:46.035 That same stimuli can serve 0:04:46.035,0:04:48.475 as what we call interruptions,[br]or multitasking, 0:04:48.475,0:04:51.385 when you think maybe you can do[br]more than one thing at a time. 0:04:51.385,0:04:53.215 Maybe you're having that conversation, 0:04:53.215,0:04:54.710 but now you're trying to listen 0:04:54.710,0:04:57.658 to what the specials are[br]being announced at the next table. 0:04:57.658,0:05:00.471 Or you're on the way[br]to the refrigerator and a phone rings; 0:05:00.471,0:05:03.688 you pick it up, and now you have to[br]reengage in your initial task. 0:05:03.688,0:05:05.894 That's how we split external interference. 0:05:05.894,0:05:08.255 This can all happen internally as well. 0:05:08.439,0:05:09.982 Some of it is mind wondering: 0:05:10.054,0:05:14.400 your thoughts leave your focus[br]against your will, irrelevantly, 0:05:14.602,0:05:17.438 just travel to places that you[br]did not intend them to. 0:05:17.714,0:05:19.989 Or you could be multitasking internally. 0:05:19.989,0:05:21.592 Perhaps you're doing it now: 0:05:21.592,0:05:23.363 you pay attention to what I'm saying, 0:05:23.363,0:05:25.316 you look at the slides, listening to me, 0:05:25.316,0:05:27.844 but you might be planning[br]what to have for lunch later 0:05:27.844,0:05:30.146 and who you're going to meet[br]in the afternoon. 0:05:30.146,0:05:35.368 So this constant interference keeps us[br]from being present, directed on our goals. 0:05:36.905,0:05:41.310 So, given those limitations of our brain[br]and our susceptibility to interference, 0:05:41.323,0:05:44.433 what happens when you take your brain[br]and you expose it to this? 0:05:44.433,0:05:45.528 (Laughter) 0:05:46.600,0:05:49.637 You're probably all familiar[br]with most of these things. 0:05:49.838,0:05:51.897 The last several decades[br]have literally seen 0:05:51.897,0:05:56.121 an explosion of the diversity[br]and accessibility of electronic media, 0:05:56.471,0:05:59.445 and the devices that deliver it,[br]many of which are portable. 0:05:59.520,0:06:02.524 Probably most of you have a computer[br]in your pockets right now 0:06:02.524,0:06:05.025 that allows you to access[br]this at any moment. 0:06:05.458,0:06:08.311 What's even more profound,[br]it's not the change in technology, 0:06:08.311,0:06:11.817 but historically one media[br]has replaced other medias. 0:06:11.922,0:06:13.490 That's not what's happening now. 0:06:13.490,0:06:16.060 Now, data shows,[br]I'm sure you're all aware of it, 0:06:16.065,0:06:18.307 that people are using medias[br]at the same time. 0:06:18.508,0:06:20.403 Approximately 95 percent of people 0:06:20.403,0:06:23.128 report using more than one[br]form of media at a time, 0:06:23.128,0:06:26.746 and that activity takes place[br]almost 30 percent of your days. 0:06:28.076,0:06:30.654 Children might probably[br]have this even more so, 0:06:30.654,0:06:33.095 although it's just beginning[br]to be investigated now. 0:06:33.095,0:06:35.609 Almost an obsessive media[br]multitasking frenzy - 0:06:35.609,0:06:36.897 you're almost uncomfortable 0:06:36.897,0:06:40.830 when taken away from your ability[br]to interact with technology in this way. 0:06:41.022,0:06:44.271 Before I move forward, I want to say[br]that I'm a friend of technology, 0:06:44.271,0:06:48.789 I'm not anti-technology; I use all these[br]wonderful toys as well as you do. 0:06:48.905,0:06:52.361 Here I am, working on this talk;[br]I've two large computer monitors, 0:06:52.361,0:06:55.718 email on the left side,[br]cell phone in hand accepting texts, 0:06:55.718,0:06:57.885 music playing in the background. 0:06:57.982,0:07:01.219 This is how we all interact[br]with technology, at least to some degree. 0:07:01.219,0:07:05.160 Some people have up to six or more forms[br]of media at any given time. 0:07:06.463,0:07:08.694 Another thing that's changed[br]are expectations. 0:07:08.930,0:07:11.237 This constant access to communications, 0:07:11.237,0:07:17.088 computers and data has really changed[br]societal expectations. 0:07:17.484,0:07:22.448 Now immediate responsiveness[br]and continuous productivity are expected. 0:07:22.790,0:07:25.739 How many of you are on vacation[br]and check your email? 0:07:26.389,0:07:29.517 A little dark in here, but I just see[br]a lot of movement out there. 0:07:29.517,0:07:32.426 So I'll take that[br]as a resounding ''yes,'' right. 0:07:32.426,0:07:34.997 So we know that our ability to disconnect, 0:07:34.997,0:07:37.920 to really be present in what[br]we're experiencing is decreasing, 0:07:37.920,0:07:39.885 even when we're "taking vacations," 0:07:39.885,0:07:43.402 the break from all of this[br]constant productivity. 0:07:44.810,0:07:48.189 So, we should ask the question:[br]how do we function at all? 0:07:48.274,0:07:51.148 Given those limitations[br]and how we interact with technology, 0:07:51.148,0:07:53.466 how are we capable of getting[br]anything done? 0:07:53.553,0:07:56.711 I want to tell you about[br]the process of cognitive control. 0:07:56.793,0:08:00.176 Cognitive control is what allows us[br]to function at least to some degree 0:08:00.201,0:08:01.679 under these circumstances. 0:08:01.884,0:08:04.269 How we perceive the world[br]is not a passive process. 0:08:04.269,0:08:06.701 Our environment just[br]doesn't flood into our brains. 0:08:06.701,0:08:09.350 It's sculpted and shaped by our attention. 0:08:09.474,0:08:11.030 Two types of attention: 0:08:11.030,0:08:14.311 One attention is external,[br]stimulus-driven attention, 0:08:14.362,0:08:18.028 it is the environment imposing[br]itself upon how you perceive the world. 0:08:18.267,0:08:20.505 If there's a flash of light, a loud sound, 0:08:20.505,0:08:22.893 even if someone calls your name[br]quietly behind you, 0:08:22.893,0:08:25.086 you pay attention,[br]you redirect your attention. 0:08:25.344,0:08:28.713 Anything that's very salient or novel[br]demands your attention 0:08:28.740,0:08:30.633 and increases your perception of it. 0:08:30.710,0:08:32.097 The other type of attention - 0:08:32.097,0:08:35.045 the environment coming in[br]is also known as bottom-up attention. 0:08:35.045,0:08:37.775 The other type is internal,[br]goal-directed attention, 0:08:37.775,0:08:38.851 what you're doing now. 0:08:38.851,0:08:41.210 You're choosing to focus[br]your cognitive resources 0:08:41.210,0:08:43.594 on what you're hearing[br]and what you're seeing. 0:08:43.794,0:08:45.832 This is known as top-down attention, 0:08:45.832,0:08:47.292 your goal-directed attention. 0:08:47.292,0:08:50.715 All of your interactions[br]with the environment involve this balance 0:08:50.715,0:08:55.133 between these two forms of attention[br]that are dictating your perception. 0:08:55.391,0:08:59.911 And now we know from a lot of research,[br]a lot of it from our lab also, 0:09:00.046,0:09:05.121 is that this influence then goes on[br]and influences what you remember, 0:09:05.121,0:09:08.193 both in the short-term[br]and in the long-term. 0:09:09.026,0:09:12.984 So what happens when all this interference[br]that we are being exposed to now 0:09:13.474,0:09:17.038 exceeds the capabilities[br]of our cognitive control? 0:09:17.610,0:09:22.353 Well, what we now realize is[br]that there is a broad and deep influence: 0:09:22.516,0:09:27.706 safety, family, our social development,[br]workplace, education. 0:09:27.931,0:09:29.706 All of these things are affected. 0:09:29.918,0:09:33.315 There's not nearly enough time[br]in this talk to talk about these 0:09:33.330,0:09:37.105 since each one of these can have[br]their own lecture associated with them, 0:09:37.105,0:09:39.894 showing you how broad this issue is. 0:09:40.316,0:09:43.316 What I'm going to talk to you[br]about in detail is cognition, 0:09:43.316,0:09:46.866 because this is what we study in our lab,[br]specifically memory. 0:09:47.307,0:09:50.057 There's a really beautiful quote[br]by Samuel Johnson, 0:09:50.521,0:09:53.886 who was a British author in the 1700s. 0:09:54.192,0:09:56.672 He wasn't a psychologist,[br]he wasn't a neuroscientist, 0:09:56.672,0:09:58.248 but he was incredibly insightful. 0:09:58.248,0:10:02.438 He said something that really showed[br]a profound awareness, 0:10:02.450,0:10:04.629 because there was no data[br]on this at the time. 0:10:04.886,0:10:08.760 What he said is that "the true art[br]of memory is the art of attention," 0:10:08.894,0:10:11.449 that "no man will read[br]with much advantage 0:10:11.463,0:10:14.119 who is not able, at pleasure,[br]to evacuate his mind," 0:10:14.316,0:10:16.851 that "if the repositories[br]of thought are already full, 0:10:16.851,0:10:18.364 what can they receive?" 0:10:18.596,0:10:21.234 And "if the mind is employed[br]on the past or the future, 0:10:21.234,0:10:23.830 the book will be held[br]before the eyes in vain." 0:10:23.956,0:10:26.351 There's a full career[br]of research studies here. 0:10:26.400,0:10:28.600 We're slowly working our way through these 0:10:28.682,0:10:31.846 to show what's going on[br]in the brain that leads to this, 0:10:31.846,0:10:34.495 and how true is this to our behavior. 0:10:34.782,0:10:36.993 So, I figured the easiest way to do this 0:10:36.993,0:10:40.006 is to have you perform[br]one of our experiments right now, 0:10:40.371,0:10:42.155 so you can get an idea of what we do. 0:10:42.187,0:10:44.647 And while we do this,[br]we'll record brain activities. 0:10:44.647,0:10:46.845 You'll do a less demanding[br]version of this, 0:10:46.845,0:10:49.314 where you're not shoved[br]inside one of our scanners. 0:10:49.873,0:10:54.413 What we are going have you do now is[br]"Remember a face," very simple experiment. 0:10:54.513,0:10:55.737 One face will come up, 0:10:55.737,0:10:57.940 it comes up pretty quickly,[br]so be ready for it. 0:10:57.940,0:11:01.214 Then around 7 seconds will pass,[br]there will be an X on the screen, 0:11:01.214,0:11:03.558 and you should remember[br]the face - just one face. 0:11:03.558,0:11:06.106 Then another face comes up,[br]and your job is be to say, 0:11:06.106,0:11:08.919 "Yes, that's the face I saw,"[br]or "No, that's a new face." 0:11:09.038,0:11:11.162 O.K.? Ready to give it a shot? 0:11:20.642,0:11:21.645 (Audience) No. 0:11:21.645,0:11:23.154 No. The answer is no. 0:11:23.154,0:11:24.522 If any of you thinking yes, 0:11:24.522,0:11:25.522 do not be nervous, 0:11:25.522,0:11:27.909 no reason to make a clinic[br]appointment right now. 0:11:27.909,0:11:31.768 It takes practice to get used to this,[br]people don't always get a 100 percent. 0:11:32.007,0:11:35.859 I'm going to have you do another version[br]of this experiment, it's the same thing - 0:11:35.859,0:11:37.490 see a face, after a period of time 0:11:37.490,0:11:40.358 another face'll come up[br]and you'll have to see if it matches. 0:11:40.358,0:11:43.354 But in this experiment,[br]another face will pop up in the middle, 0:11:43.354,0:11:46.784 and for that face you'll have to[br]make a decision: is it a male over 20? 0:11:46.784,0:11:49.789 Then you go back to the business[br]of remembering that first face. 0:11:49.799,0:11:50.804 Does that make sense? 0:11:50.804,0:11:51.834 (Laughter) 0:11:51.834,0:11:54.510 Remember one face and make[br]a decision on the middle face. 0:11:54.510,0:11:56.080 Pretty simple. Give it a shot. 0:12:05.478,0:12:06.991 (Audience) Yes. 0:12:07.016,0:12:08.025 It was the same face. 0:12:08.025,0:12:10.507 So, did this seem a little harder to you? 0:12:10.585,0:12:11.600 (Audience) Yes. 0:12:11.625,0:12:12.691 It is a little harder. 0:12:12.736,0:12:17.383 If you study even healthy 20-30-year-olds,[br]you see that the performance diminishes 0:12:17.383,0:12:19.692 when you introduce that second task, 0:12:19.692,0:12:21.564 even though it's not a hard experiment. 0:12:21.564,0:12:24.191 Not only that, but if you introduce[br]a face in the middle 0:12:24.191,0:12:27.017 that's totally irrelevant,[br]your performance also drops - 0:12:27.017,0:12:29.050 very subtle, but consistently. 0:12:29.326,0:12:31.494 If you happen to be older than 60, 0:12:31.494,0:12:33.992 your performance drops[br]even more from the distraction 0:12:33.992,0:12:35.981 and even more so from the interruption. 0:12:36.166,0:12:40.215 So we see that there's an exaggerated[br]effect with age of this impact 0:12:40.215,0:12:42.235 that's even there in 20- and 30-year-olds. 0:12:42.467,0:12:46.198 We are now looking at how this type[br]of distraction and interruptions 0:12:46.198,0:12:48.147 might affect your long-term memory. 0:12:48.303,0:12:53.036 So we did an experiment where we showed[br]our participants a series of 168 pictures 0:12:53.036,0:12:54.943 that had different numbers of objects. 0:12:55.227,0:12:59.513 So what you see here are 3 crowns,[br]4 couches, that's 4 vacuum cleaners - 0:12:59.525,0:13:03.341 though they look like Statues of Liberty[br]every time I look at that slide. 0:13:03.341,0:13:06.181 But you see all these pictures,[br]and then, after an hour, 0:13:06.181,0:13:07.969 you go inside our MRI scanner 0:13:07.969,0:13:10.192 so we could see what's[br]happening in your brain, 0:13:10.192,0:13:11.595 and you hear these names: 0:13:11.595,0:13:13.337 "Crown," and when you hear "Crown," 0:13:13.337,0:13:16.203 you have to press the button[br]on how many you remember seeing. 0:13:16.203,0:13:19.090 Here the correct answer would be 3,[br]or it might be new, 0:13:19.090,0:13:20.906 maybe we never showed that one before. 0:13:20.931,0:13:24.228 The interesting thing is that we look[br]at what happens to your memory 0:13:24.228,0:13:25.693 when your eyes are shut, 0:13:25.693,0:13:27.790 when they are open[br]looking at a grey screen, 0:13:27.790,0:13:30.749 and when your eyes are open[br]looking at a busy visual picture. 0:13:31.032,0:13:33.732 And what we found[br]is that the detailed quality, 0:13:33.732,0:13:36.679 your recollection of those details decline 0:13:37.016,0:13:39.563 just by having your eyes open[br]looking at a picture, 0:13:39.563,0:13:41.761 which is basically[br]what you do all day long. 0:13:42.188,0:13:44.858 Just that very simple stimulus, 0:13:44.858,0:13:47.239 that you have nothing to do[br]besides remember, 0:13:47.239,0:13:49.493 declines just by having your eyes open. 0:13:49.916,0:13:51.750 Later, you should do this experiment: 0:13:51.750,0:13:54.770 Go up to a significant other[br]or a friend, look them in the eyes, 0:13:54.770,0:13:58.313 and ask them to tell you in detail[br]what they had for dinner last night. 0:13:58.359,0:14:01.753 Almost invariably, what you'll see[br]is that they look away from you. 0:14:01.858,0:14:04.503 What we think is going on[br]from looking at the brain data 0:14:04.503,0:14:07.726 is that people are looking for[br]a quiet place in their environment 0:14:07.726,0:14:08.939 to recreate this memory. 0:14:08.939,0:14:10.876 Just looking at your face 0:14:10.876,0:14:13.208 is too distracting[br]to do this at a high level. 0:14:13.208,0:14:14.436 (Laughter) 0:14:14.566,0:14:16.024 Nothing personal. 0:14:17.096,0:14:19.885 We did another experiment,[br]where it was basically the same, 0:14:19.885,0:14:22.785 but now it was done in silence,[br]or we went into a restaurant 0:14:22.786,0:14:26.301 and we taped the normal chatter[br]that occurs in a restaurant, 0:14:26.301,0:14:28.684 and we found the same decline in memory. 0:14:28.861,0:14:29.898 The point of this 0:14:29.898,0:14:33.214 is not that you should walk around[br]with blindfolds on and earplugs in. 0:14:33.214,0:14:37.337 The point is to show you[br]how exquisitely sensitive our memory is 0:14:37.518,0:14:40.889 even to the normal environmental[br]stimulation that we cannot escape. 0:14:40.889,0:14:41.905 So you can imagine 0:14:41.905,0:14:45.909 when you layer upon all the normal[br]complexity that exists in our environment. 0:14:46.082,0:14:48.909 But we do this, the reason[br]we make such simple experiments 0:14:48.909,0:14:51.331 is we're recording brain activity[br]with these tools: 0:14:51.331,0:14:55.509 functional MRI that lets us look at blood[br]flow correlates of neural activity 0:14:55.509,0:14:58.200 and lets us see where in the brain[br]events are occurring; 0:14:58.200,0:15:02.519 as well as EEG, in which we're looking at[br]electrical signatures of neural activity, 0:15:02.532,0:15:04.696 where we can see[br]when events are occurring. 0:15:04.696,0:15:05.889 And we do these tools 0:15:05.889,0:15:10.454 to understand what happens in our brain[br]when we have interference 0:15:10.454,0:15:12.217 and how it diminishes our abilities. 0:15:12.565,0:15:15.393 I'm just going to summarize this[br]with a couple of cartoons, 0:15:15.415,0:15:17.424 data from our lab and so many labs 0:15:17.427,0:15:20.583 to give you the latest understanding[br]about what's going on. 0:15:21.593,0:15:23.054 This is your brain. 0:15:23.281,0:15:25.706 The front part is over here on this side, 0:15:25.731,0:15:28.650 and what we see is[br]that the prefrontal cortex - 0:15:28.676,0:15:31.756 that's the part of our brain[br]that makes us most human, 0:15:31.756,0:15:35.371 the part that's evolved the most,[br]the part that develops the latest, 0:15:35.372,0:15:38.669 it's the part that's involved [br]in this cognitive control. 0:15:38.947,0:15:42.952 And when you're confronted [br]with distraction, it acts as a bouncer. 0:15:43.152,0:15:45.916 It's saying, "What information[br]is on the guest list?" 0:15:46.014,0:15:49.450 And through its connectivity in a network[br]with visual parts of the brain, 0:15:49.450,0:15:50.655 which are in the back, 0:15:50.655,0:15:52.937 it controls what information gets in. 0:15:53.197,0:15:55.217 You can see this is[br]a very busy night club, 0:15:55.217,0:15:59.520 but your visual cortex will only fit[br]six things or even less at a time, 0:15:59.520,0:16:01.476 depending on how complicated they are. 0:16:01.735,0:16:04.597 When information gets in[br]that's not on the guest list, 0:16:04.602,0:16:07.211 you have a cost - your performance drops. 0:16:07.484,0:16:09.415 This is what changes as we get older: 0:16:09.415,0:16:12.230 our filter, our ability to block out[br]information decreases, 0:16:12.230,0:16:15.226 and the degree that it decreases[br]directly correlates 0:16:15.226,0:16:19.689 with our inability to remember the things[br]that we're trying to remember - our goals. 0:16:19.962,0:16:22.605 What happens in terms of multitasking? 0:16:22.769,0:16:25.185 Once again, the prefrontal[br]cortex is in charge. 0:16:25.234,0:16:27.419 But here it's acting[br]as a flight controller. 0:16:27.425,0:16:30.981 It's determining what information[br]is the priority right now, 0:16:31.337,0:16:34.002 and through its connections[br]with the back of the brain, 0:16:34.002,0:16:35.051 it's making decisions. 0:16:35.051,0:16:36.316 So, if you're crazy enough 0:16:36.316,0:16:39.802 to be riding a bike through Manhattan[br]next to a cab, texting, 0:16:39.918,0:16:41.650 you have a lot of decisions to make. 0:16:41.805,0:16:45.221 So, maybe, the first decision[br]is to focus on the traffic, 0:16:45.364,0:16:49.149 and then you think that it's safe enough[br]to now continue your text message, 0:16:49.166,0:16:50.731 and so you do that. 0:16:50.739,0:16:54.912 But what you don't do is this:[br]you don't split those decisions. 0:16:55.041,0:16:58.089 The prefrontal cortex has[br]what's known as a central bottleneck. 0:16:58.382,0:17:00.540 And so what you do is switch. 0:17:00.641,0:17:02.865 Your prefrontal cortex[br]switches between tasks 0:17:02.871,0:17:05.655 even though it feels like[br]you're doing more than one thing. 0:17:05.655,0:17:08.982 This is what's led this being referred to[br]as the myth of multitasking - 0:17:08.982,0:17:11.322 that you're not really doing[br]more than one thing 0:17:11.322,0:17:13.035 unless they become very automated, 0:17:13.035,0:17:14.462 gum chewing, walking. 0:17:14.554,0:17:18.268 Although even those have been found[br]to have some interference with each other, 0:17:18.268,0:17:19.274 believe it or not. 0:17:19.299,0:17:20.572 (Laughter) 0:17:20.736,0:17:24.500 With each switch, there is a time delay,[br]and this leads to a cost - 0:17:24.500,0:17:25.987 an impact on performance. 0:17:26.089,0:17:29.395 You do not do two things[br]as well as you do one thing 0:17:29.395,0:17:33.440 if you switch back and forth between them,[br]and this gets worse as you get older. 0:17:33.495,0:17:37.625 We just had a paper published last week[br]that shows that as you get older, 0:17:37.650,0:17:39.684 this switching, the letting go, 0:17:39.684,0:17:43.001 the disengaging and[br]the reengaging become slower, 0:17:43.001,0:17:45.777 and this creates the[br]interference in your memory. 0:17:46.618,0:17:47.831 Why do we do it? 0:17:47.876,0:17:50.577 We get the impression, [br]and we have lots of data now, 0:17:50.577,0:17:53.450 that this is negative on our performance. 0:17:53.512,0:17:56.485 There is not a lot of data for this,[br]some of this is anecdotal, 0:17:56.510,0:17:59.380 based on my impressions,[br]but it's a resonable place to start. 0:17:59.537,0:18:00.847 Multitasking. 0:18:01.140,0:18:03.099 We have this sense it gives flexibility, 0:18:03.099,0:18:05.265 fresh perspective, increased variety, 0:18:05.265,0:18:07.432 it enables us to use[br]downtime productively, 0:18:07.831,0:18:11.346 but probably the most salient aspect[br]is that it's just more fun. 0:18:11.427,0:18:13.621 We are novelty seeking creatures. 0:18:13.692,0:18:16.761 It's a very strong part[br]of our evolution to seek out new. 0:18:16.977,0:18:19.912 It stimulates the dopamine system,[br]the reward system. 0:18:20.094,0:18:24.020 There is no doubt that one chunk of time[br]in which you're multitasking 0:18:24.020,0:18:27.563 has more novelty than the same[br]period of time in unitasking. 0:18:27.651,0:18:29.203 And so we probably seek it out. 0:18:29.356,0:18:33.379 There's even been a question that maybe[br]it's even addicting at a certain level 0:18:33.523,0:18:38.427 when you're constantly pressured[br]to get back into a new task 0:18:38.452,0:18:39.798 once you become used to it. 0:18:40.217,0:18:42.748 How about distraction?[br]It's a little more complicated. 0:18:42.773,0:18:46.310 Why do people go into noisy coffee shops[br]to read and to work? 0:18:46.310,0:18:47.891 Does anyone do that in this room? 0:18:47.923,0:18:49.183 Right, it's very common. 0:18:49.183,0:18:51.336 Usually you know[br]which type of person you are. 0:18:51.361,0:18:55.557 So, it's something that's interesting -[br]all this we're exploring in our lab now 0:18:55.565,0:18:59.846 to understand the driving force of this,[br]and are there possible benefits? 0:19:00.195,0:19:01.758 So, what can be done about this? 0:19:01.783,0:19:04.479 It's just too dreary[br]to say all these negative things 0:19:04.479,0:19:06.495 and then to walk off the stage. 0:19:06.546,0:19:09.523 So, we don't have all the answers, 0:19:09.548,0:19:11.839 but I can tell you it seems[br]there are two paths, 0:19:11.864,0:19:12.863 at least to me: 0:19:12.863,0:19:15.867 we could change our behavior,[br]or we could change our brains. 0:19:15.887,0:19:16.887 (Laughter) 0:19:16.887,0:19:19.672 Not necessarily in this scary way [br]I'm depicting over here, 0:19:19.697,0:19:20.915 but in a positive way. 0:19:21.007,0:19:24.836 So, we could change our behavior[br]because someone forces us to, right? 0:19:24.843,0:19:29.864 They say it's too dangerous to talk[br]on the phone or to text while driving, 0:19:29.864,0:19:33.504 so we're not letting you do it anymore;[br]we give you a ticket if you do that. 0:19:33.504,0:19:35.814 But there's other ways[br]we can change our behavior 0:19:35.814,0:19:37.598 on things less dangerous to society. 0:19:37.598,0:19:39.152 So we could make decisions. 0:19:39.331,0:19:41.863 Just because we have[br]all these wonderful technologies 0:19:41.888,0:19:44.850 doesn't mean we have to use it[br]all at exactly the same time. 0:19:44.875,0:19:48.462 We get to make decisions[br]based upon what we now understand 0:19:48.524,0:19:51.763 about how this interaction[br]with technology and with ourselves 0:19:51.787,0:19:53.164 changes our behavior. 0:19:53.179,0:19:56.762 So I'm going to tell you what I do;[br]I will not tell you what to do. 0:19:56.788,0:19:58.081 Since I've researched this, 0:19:58.081,0:20:01.384 I felt that I needed to make[br]some decisions about my own behavior, 0:20:01.384,0:20:02.750 and this is what I decided: 0:20:02.775,0:20:04.769 When working on something very important, 0:20:04.794,0:20:08.420 something that demands high quality,[br]especially something time sensitive, 0:20:08.452,0:20:11.358 I do one thing at a time,[br]singular attention, 0:20:11.358,0:20:15.347 I quit my email - too distracting[br]with messages coming in - 0:20:15.347,0:20:16.485 I turn off my phone, 0:20:16.485,0:20:20.800 I close my door, I do one thing,[br]and I find it quite enjoyable. 0:20:20.800,0:20:23.513 I actually had stopped[br]doing that for quite a while. 0:20:23.644,0:20:25.247 But I don't do this all the time. 0:20:25.556,0:20:28.412 There is many things in my day[br]that are very boring, 0:20:28.412,0:20:29.803 I know they have to get done, 0:20:29.828,0:20:31.982 but I know if I try to do[br]one thing at a time, 0:20:32.007,0:20:33.214 I would never finish it. 0:20:33.239,0:20:36.157 So I might set aside three hours[br]of just intense multitasking; 0:20:36.182,0:20:39.383 the more I'm switching, the better;[br]it just keeps it moving along. 0:20:39.383,0:20:42.245 So, it's not a message[br]that technology is bad, don't do this. 0:20:42.245,0:20:44.860 It's just the point[br]that decisions need to be made 0:20:44.911,0:20:47.051 when we interact[br]and our environment changes. 0:20:47.051,0:20:48.813 It's happened many times in the past, 0:20:48.813,0:20:52.359 this is just another example that we[br]have to learn how to deal with better. 0:20:52.555,0:20:53.959 Changing our brains. 0:20:54.135,0:20:57.286 Our brains are capable[br]of a tremendous degree of plasticity. 0:20:57.360,0:21:00.812 That means it adapts and modifies[br]to stimuli from the environment. 0:21:00.863,0:21:03.583 And we now know that this[br]is not just when you're a child, 0:21:03.608,0:21:05.279 it occurs through your entire life. 0:21:05.304,0:21:09.847 We are looking at exercises - there's [br]a video game that we developed in our lab 0:21:09.847,0:21:13.536 to see if we can strengthen[br]these abilities through practice. 0:21:13.709,0:21:17.454 So, in this case, it's a car driving game[br]and you're interacting with the road, 0:21:17.454,0:21:20.780 signs come up, sometimes relevant[br]and sometimes irrelevant, 0:21:21.061,0:21:23.931 and you're pressing buttons,[br]moving, challenging yourself 0:21:23.931,0:21:26.081 in an adaptive way,[br]in a way that's fun. 0:21:26.081,0:21:30.720 What's interesting about this video game -[br]it was designed to be played in our lab 0:21:30.720,0:21:34.206 while recording brain activity[br]and seeing what's going on in our brain 0:21:34.253,0:21:37.044 while you interact with[br]all this hype of interference. 0:21:37.044,0:21:40.317 We have a study going on now[br]with healthy older adults, 0:21:40.378,0:21:42.000 they take home a laptop, 0:21:42.121,0:21:44.761 and they play this game at home,[br]and while they play it, 0:21:44.761,0:21:47.702 their behavioral performance data [br]downloads to their computer 0:21:47.702,0:21:49.898 and straight from Dropbox[br]right into our lab, 0:21:49.898,0:21:52.217 almost in real time,[br]we can get their brain data, 0:21:52.217,0:21:53.452 their behavioral data, 0:21:53.452,0:21:54.938 while they are playing at home. 0:21:54.963,0:21:58.225 Then they come into the lab and we look[br]what's changed in their brain 0:21:58.250,0:22:00.367 to enable them to function[br]at a higher level, 0:22:00.392,0:22:01.741 which is what we're seeing - 0:22:01.766,0:22:03.341 brains are capable of plasticity. 0:22:03.366,0:22:07.092 We're now looking at wireless[br]EEG bluetooth headsets 0:22:07.092,0:22:10.866 that allow us to have our[br]older participants put these on at home 0:22:10.866,0:22:12.495 and record their brain activity, 0:22:12.495,0:22:16.236 so we could move our lab outside[br]of our laboratory into people's homes 0:22:16.236,0:22:18.282 and record what are[br]the changes in the brain 0:22:18.282,0:22:20.505 that lead to this higher[br]ability with practice. 0:22:20.505,0:22:22.508 And then they can come back into the lab, 0:22:22.508,0:22:25.197 and we can use fMRI[br]to look at these changes in networks. 0:22:25.197,0:22:27.765 I think it's an exciting time[br]where we're learning more 0:22:27.765,0:22:29.633 about how our brains can adapt to this. 0:22:29.664,0:22:32.103 So with that, I want to thank you[br]for your attention 0:22:32.103,0:22:34.783 and, of course, your lack[br]of attention to other things. 0:22:34.823,0:22:40.101 (Applause)