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I believe that the secret to producing
extremely drought-tolerant crops,

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which should go some way
to providing food security in the world,

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lies in resurrection plants,

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pictured here, in an extremely
droughted state.

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You might think
that these plants look dead,

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but they're not.

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Give them water,

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and they will resurrect, green up,
start growing, in 12 to 48 hours.

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Now, why would I suggest

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that producing drought-tolerant crops
will go towards providing food security?

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Well, the current world population
is around 7 billion.

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And it's estimated that by 2050,

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we'll be between 9 and 10 billion people,

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with the bulk of this growth
happening in Africa.

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The food and agricultural
organizations of the world

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have suggested that we need
a 70 percent increase

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in current agricultural practice

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to meet that demand.

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Given that plants
are at the base of the food chain,

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most of that's going
to have to come from plants.

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That percentage of 70 percent

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does not take into consideration
the potential effects of climate change.

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This is taken from a study by Dai
published in 2011,

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where he took into consideration

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all the potential effects
of climate change

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and expressed them --
amongst other things --

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increased aridity due to lack of rain
or infrequent rain.

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The areas in red shown here,

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are areas that until recently

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have been very successfully
used for agriculture,

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but cannot anymore
because of lack of rainfall.

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This is the situation
that's predicted to happen in 2050.

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Much of Africa,
in fact, much of the world,

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is going to be in trouble.

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We're going to have to think of some
very smart ways of producing food.

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And preferably among them,
some drought-tolerant crops.

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The other thing
to remember about Africa is

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that most of their agriculture is rainfed.

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Now, making drought-tolerant crops
is not the easiest thing in the world.

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And the reason for this is water.

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Water is essential to life on this planet.

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All living, actively
metabolizing organisms,

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from microbes to you and I,

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are comprised predominately of water.

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All life reactions happen in water.

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And loss of a small amount
of water results in death.

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You and I are 65 percent water --

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we lose one percent of that, we die.

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But we can make behavioral
changes to avoid that.

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Plants can't.

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They're stuck in the ground.

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And so in the first instance they have
a little bit more water than us,

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about 95 percent water,

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and they can lose
a little bit more than us,

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like 10 to about 70 percent,
depending on the species,

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but for short periods only.

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Most of them will either try
to resist or avoid water loss.

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So extreme examples of resistors
can be found in succulents.

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They tend to be small, very attractive,

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but they hold onto their water
at such great cost

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that they grow extremely slowly.

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Examples of avoidance of water loss
are found in trees and shrubs.

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They send down very deep roots,

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mine subterranean water supplies

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and just keep flushing
it through them at all times,

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keeping themselves hydrated.

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The one on the right is called a baobab.

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It's also called the upside-down tree,

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simply because the proportion
of roots to shoots is so great

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that it looks like the tree
has been planted upside down.

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And of course the roots are required
for hydration of that plant.

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And probably the most common strategy
of avoidance is found in annuals.

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Annuals make up the bulk
of our plant food supplies.

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Up the west coast of my country,

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for much of the year
you don't see much vegetation growth.

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But come the spring rains, you get this:

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flowering of the desert.

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The strategy in annuals,

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is to grow only in the rainy season.

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At the end of that season
they produce a seed,

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which is dry, eight to 10 percent water,

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but very much alive.

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And anything that is
that dry and still alive,

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we call desiccation-tolerant.

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In the desiccated state,

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what seeds can do
is lie in extremes of environment

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for prolonged periods of time.

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The next time the rainy season comes,

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they germinate and grow,

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and the whole cycle just starts again.

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It's widely believed that the evolution
of desiccation-tolerant seeds

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allowed the colonization and the radiation

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of flowering plants,
or angiosperms, onto land.

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But back to annuals
as our major form of food supplies.

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Wheat, rice and maize form 95 percent
of our plant food supplies.

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And it's been a great strategy

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because in a short space of time
you can produce a lot of seed.

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Seeds are energy-rich
so there's a lot of food calories,

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you can store it in times of plenty
for times of famine,

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but there's a downside.

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The vegetative tissues,

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the roots and leaves of annuals,

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do not have much

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by way of inherent resistance,
avoidance or tolerance characteristics.

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They just don't need them.

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They grow in the rainy season

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and they've got a seed
to help them survive the rest of the year.

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And so despite concerted
efforts in agriculture

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to make crops with improved properties

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of resistance, avoidance and tolerance --

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particularly resistance and avoidance

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because we've had good models
to understand how those work --

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we still get images like this.

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Maize crop in Africa,

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two weeks without rain

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and it's dead.

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There is a solution:

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resurrection plants.

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These plants can lose 95 percent
of their cellular water,

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remain in a dry, dead-like state
for months to years,

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and give them water,

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they green up and start growing again.

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Like seeds, these are
desiccation-tolerant.

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Like seeds, these can withstand extremes
of environmental conditions.

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And this is a really rare phenomenon.

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There are only 135 flowering
plant species that can do this.

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I'm going to show you a video

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of the resurrection process
of these three species

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in that order.

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And at the bottom,

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there's a time axis
so you can see how quickly it happens.

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(Applause)

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Pretty amazing, huh?

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So I've spent the last 21 years
trying to understand how they do this.

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How do these plants dry without dying?

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And I work on a variety
of different resurrection plants,

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shown here in the hydrated and dry states,

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for a number of reasons.

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One of them is that each
of these plants serves as a model

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for a crop that I'd like
to make drought-tolerant.

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So on the extreme top left,
for example, is a grass,

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it's called Eragrostis nindensis,

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it's got a close relative
called Eragrostis tef --

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a lot of you might know it as "teff" --

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it's a staple food in Ethiopia,

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it's gluten-free,

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and it's something we would like
to make drought-tolerant.

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The other reason for looking
at a number of plants,

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is that, at least initially,

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I wanted to find out:
do they do the same thing?

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Do they all use the same mechanisms

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to be able to lose
all that water and not die?

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So I undertook what we call
a systems biology approach

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in order to get
a comprehensive understanding

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of desiccation tolerance,

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in which we look at everything

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from the molecular to the whole plant,
ecophysiological level.

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For example we look at things like

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changes in the plant anatomy
as they dried out

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and their ultrastructure.

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We look at the transcriptome,
which is just a term for a technology

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in which we look at the genes

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that are switched on or off,
in response to drying.

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Most genes will code for proteins,
so we look at the proteome.

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What are the proteins made
in response to drying?

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Some proteins would code for enzymes
which make metabolites,

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so we look at the metabolome.

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Now, this is important
because plants are stuck in the ground.

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They use what I call
a highly tuned chemical arsenal

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to protect themselves from all
the stresses of their environment.

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So it's important that we look

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at the chemical changes
involved in drying.

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And at the last study
that we do at the molecular level,

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we look at the lipidome --

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the lipid changes in response to drying.

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And that's also important

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because all biological membranes
are made of lipids.

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They're held as membranes
because they're in water.

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Take away the water,
those membranes fall apart.

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Lipids also act as signals
to turn on genes.

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Then we use physiological
and biochemical studies

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to try and understand
the function of the putative protectants

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that we've actually discovered
in our other studies.

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And then use all of that
to try and understand

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how the plant copes
with its natural environment.

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I've always had the philosophy that
I needed a comprehensive understanding

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of the mechanisms of desiccation tolerance

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in order to make a meaningful suggestion
for a biotic application.

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I'm sure some of you are thinking,

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"By biotic application,

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does she mean she's going to make
genetically modified crops?"

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And the answer to that question is:

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depends on your definition
of genetic modification.

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All of the crops that we eat today,
wheat, rice and maize,

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are highly genetically modified
from their ancestors,

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but we don't consider them GM

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because they're being produced
by conventional breeding.

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If you mean, am I going to put
resurrection plant genes into crops,

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your answer is yes.

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In the essence of time,
we have tried that approach.

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More appropriately,
some of my collaborators at UCT,

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Jennifer Thomson, Suhail Rafudeen,

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have spearheaded that approach

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and I'm going to show you some data soon.

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But we're about to embark
upon an extremely ambitious approach,

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in which we aim to turn on
whole suites of genes

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that are already present in every crop.

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They're just never turned on
under extreme drought conditions.

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I leave it up to you to decide

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whether those should be called GM or not.

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I'm going to now just give you
some of the data from that first approach.

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And in order to do that

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I have to explain a little bit
about how genes work.

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So you probably all know

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that genes are made
of double-stranded DNA.

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It's wound very tightly into chromosomes

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that are present in every cell
of your body or in a plant's body.

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If you unwind that DNA, you get genes.

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And each gene has a promoter,

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which is just an on-off switch,

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the gene coding region,

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and then a terminator,

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which indicates that this is the end
of this gene, the next gene will start.

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Now, promoters are not
simple on-off switches.

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They normally require
a lot of fine-tuning,

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lots of things to be present and correct
before that gene is switched on.

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So what's typically done
in biotech studies

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is that we use an inducible promoter,

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we know how to switch it on.

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We couple that to genes of interest

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and put that into a plant
and see how the plant responds.

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In the study that I'm going
to talk to you about,

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my collaborators used
a drought-induced promoter,

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which we discovered
in a resurrection plant.

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The nice thing about this promoter
is that we do nothing.

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The plant itself senses drought.

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And we've used it to drive antioxidant
genes from resurrection plants.

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Why antioxidant genes?

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Well, all stresses,
particularly drought stress,

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results in the formation of free radicals,

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or reactive oxygen species,

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which are highly damaging
and can cause crop death.

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What antioxidants do is stop that damage.

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So here's some data from a maize strain
that's very popularly used in Africa.

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To the left of the arrow
are plants without the genes,

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to the right --

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plants with the antioxidant genes.

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After three weeks without watering,

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the ones with the genes
do a hell of a lot better.

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Now to the final approach.

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My research has shown
that there's considerable similarity

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in the mechanisms of desiccation tolerance
in seeds and resurrection plants.

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So I ask the question,

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are they using the same genes?

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Or slightly differently phrased,

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are resurrection plants using genes
evolved in seed desiccation tolerance

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in their roots and leaves?

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Have they retasked these seed genes

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in roots and leaves
of resurrection plants?

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And I answer that question,

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as a consequence of a lot
of research from my group

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and recent collaborations from a group
of Henk Hilhorst in the Netherlands,

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Mel Oliver in the United States

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and Julia Buitink in France.

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The answer is yes,

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that there is a core set of genes
that are involved in both.

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And I'm going to illustrate this
very crudely for maize,

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where the chromosomes below the off switch

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represent all the genes that are required
for desiccation tolerance.

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So as maize seeds dried out
at the end of their period of development,

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they switch these genes on.

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Resurrection plants
switch on the same genes

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when they dry out.

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All modern crops, therefore,

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have these genes
in their roots and leaves,

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they just never switch them on.

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They only switch them on in seed tissues.

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So what we're trying to do right now

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is to understand the environmental
and cellular signals

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that switch on these genes
in resurrection plants,

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to mimic the process in crops.

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And just a final thought.

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What we're trying to do very rapidly

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is to repeat what nature did
in the evolution of resurrection plants

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some 10 to 40 million years ago.

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My plants and I thank you
for your attention.

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(Applause)