0:00:00.464,0:00:03.057
I'm going to talk about consciousness.

0:00:03.081,0:00:04.537
Why consciousness?

0:00:04.561,0:00:07.363
Well, it's a curiously neglected subject,

0:00:07.387,0:00:10.927
both in our scientific[br]and our philosophical culture.

0:00:10.951,0:00:12.199
Now why is that curious?

0:00:12.223,0:00:15.709
Well, it is the most important[br]aspect of our lives

0:00:15.733,0:00:17.667
for a very simple, logical reason,

0:00:17.691,0:00:20.064
namely, it's a necessary[br]condition on anything

0:00:20.088,0:00:22.541
being important in our lives[br]that we're conscious.

0:00:22.565,0:00:25.700
You care about science, philosophy,[br]music, art, whatever --

0:00:25.724,0:00:29.178
it's no good if you're[br]a zombie or in a coma, right?

0:00:29.202,0:00:31.522
So consciousness is number one.

0:00:31.546,0:00:33.990
The second reason is that when people do

0:00:34.014,0:00:36.306
get interested in it,[br]as I think they should,

0:00:36.330,0:00:39.157
they tend to say[br]the most appalling things.

0:00:39.181,0:00:41.801
And then, even when they're[br]not saying appalling things

0:00:41.825,0:00:44.159
and they're really trying[br]to do serious research,

0:00:44.183,0:00:47.300
well, it's been slow.[br]Progress has been slow.

0:00:47.324,0:00:50.440
When I first got interested[br]in this, I thought, well,

0:00:50.464,0:00:52.646
it's a straightforward problem in biology.

0:00:52.670,0:00:55.143
Let's get these brain stabbers[br]to get busy and figure out

0:00:55.167,0:00:56.027
how it works in the brain.

0:00:56.051,0:00:58.051
So I went over to UCSF and I talked to all

0:00:58.075,0:00:59.844
the heavy-duty neurobiologists there,

0:00:59.868,0:01:01.420
and they showed some impatience,

0:01:01.444,0:01:04.803
as scientists often do when you[br]ask them embarrassing questions.

0:01:04.827,0:01:08.561
But the thing that struck me is,[br]one guy said in exasperation,

0:01:08.585,0:01:10.728
a very famous neurobiologist,[br]he said, "Look,

0:01:10.752,0:01:14.151
in my discipline it's okay to be[br]interested in consciousness,

0:01:14.175,0:01:17.718
but get tenure first. Get tenure first."

0:01:17.742,0:01:20.436
Now I've been working[br]on this for a long time.

0:01:20.460,0:01:22.414
I think now you might actually get tenure

0:01:22.438,0:01:23.772
by working on consciousness.

0:01:23.796,0:01:26.318
If so, that's a real step forward.

0:01:26.342,0:01:29.223
Okay, now why then is this[br]curious reluctance

0:01:29.247,0:01:31.121
and curious hostility to consciousness?

0:01:31.145,0:01:33.851
Well, I think it's a combination[br]of two features

0:01:33.875,0:01:35.756
of our intellectual culture

0:01:35.780,0:01:38.282
that like to think they're[br]opposing each other

0:01:38.306,0:01:41.905
but in fact they share[br]a common set of assumptions.

0:01:41.929,0:01:45.867
One feature is the tradition[br]of religious dualism:

0:01:45.891,0:01:49.192
Consciousness is not a part[br]of the physical world.

0:01:49.216,0:01:51.119
It's a part of the spiritual world.

0:01:51.143,0:01:52.655
It belongs to the soul,

0:01:52.679,0:01:55.951
and the soul is not a part[br]of the physical world.

0:01:55.975,0:01:58.982
That's the tradition of God,[br]the soul and immortality.

0:01:59.006,0:02:01.087
There's another tradition[br]that thinks it's opposed to this

0:02:01.111,0:02:03.191
but accepts the worst assumption.

0:02:03.215,0:02:07.269
That tradition thinks that we are heavy-duty[br]scientific materialists:

0:02:07.293,0:02:10.734
Consciousness is not a part[br]of the physical world.

0:02:10.758,0:02:13.380
Either it doesn't exist at all,[br]or it's something else,

0:02:13.404,0:02:16.030
a computer program[br]or some damn fool thing,

0:02:16.054,0:02:19.225
but in any case it's not part of science.

0:02:19.249,0:02:21.433
And I used to get in an argument[br]that really gave me a stomachache.

0:02:21.457,0:02:23.052
Here's how it went.

0:02:23.076,0:02:27.084
Science is objective,[br]consciousness is subjective,

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therefore there cannot be[br]a science of consciousness.

0:02:30.435,0:02:36.915
Okay, so these twin[br]traditions are paralyzing us.

0:02:36.939,0:02:39.783
It's very hard to get[br]out of these twin traditions.

0:02:39.807,0:02:42.801
And I have only one real[br]message in this lecture,

0:02:42.825,0:02:46.185
and that is, consciousness[br]is a biological phenomenon

0:02:46.209,0:02:49.074
like photosynthesis, digestion, mitosis --

0:02:49.098,0:02:53.409
you know all the biological phenomena[br]-- and once you accept that,

0:02:53.433,0:02:56.048
most, though not all, of the hard problems

0:02:56.072,0:02:58.323
about consciousness simply evaporate.

0:02:58.347,0:03:00.376
And I'm going to go through some of them.

0:03:00.400,0:03:02.709
Okay, now I promised you to tell you some

0:03:02.733,0:03:05.448
of the outrageous things[br]said about consciousness.

0:03:05.472,0:03:09.048
One: Consciousness does not exist.

0:03:09.072,0:03:11.278
It's an illusion, like sunsets.

0:03:11.302,0:03:16.343
Science has shown sunsets[br]and rainbows are illusions.

0:03:16.367,0:03:18.266
So consciousness is an illusion.

0:03:18.290,0:03:21.521
Two: Well, maybe it exists,[br]but it's really something else.

0:03:21.545,0:03:25.302
It's a computer program[br]running in the brain.

0:03:25.326,0:03:29.116
Three: No, the only thing[br]that exists is really behavior.

0:03:29.140,0:03:32.724
It's embarrassing how influential[br]behaviorism was,

0:03:32.748,0:03:34.079
but I'll get back to that.

0:03:34.103,0:03:36.813
And four: Maybe consciousness exists,

0:03:36.837,0:03:39.028
but it can't make[br]any difference to the world.

0:03:39.052,0:03:41.748
How could spirituality move anything?

0:03:41.772,0:03:43.963
Now, whenever somebody[br]tells me that, I think,

0:03:43.987,0:03:46.253
you want to see spirituality[br]move something?

0:03:46.277,0:03:49.105
Watch. I decide consciously[br]to raise my arm,

0:03:49.129,0:03:51.714
and the damn thing goes up. (Laughter)

0:03:51.738,0:03:55.485
Furthermore, notice this:

0:03:55.509,0:03:59.480
We do not say, "Well, it's a bit[br]like the weather in Geneva.

0:03:59.504,0:04:02.128
Some days it goes up and some days[br]it doesn't go up."

0:04:02.152,0:04:04.783
No. It goes up whenever[br]I damn well want it to.

0:04:04.807,0:04:07.093
Okay. I'm going to tell[br]you how that's possible.

0:04:07.117,0:04:10.592
Now, I haven't yet given you a definition.

0:04:10.616,0:04:12.950
You can't do this if you[br]don't give a definition.

0:04:12.974,0:04:15.936
People always say consciousness[br]is very hard to define.

0:04:15.960,0:04:17.819
I think it's rather easy to define

0:04:17.843,0:04:20.028
if you're not trying to give[br]a scientific definition.

0:04:20.052,0:04:22.308
We're not ready[br]for a scientific definition,

0:04:22.332,0:04:24.094
but here's a common-sense definition.

0:04:24.118,0:04:26.896
Consciousness consists[br]of all those states of feeling

0:04:26.920,0:04:28.964
or sentience or awareness.

0:04:28.988,0:04:32.522
It begins in the morning when you[br]wake up from a dreamless sleep,

0:04:32.546,0:04:34.991
and it goes on all day[br]until you fall asleep

0:04:35.015,0:04:38.189
or die or otherwise become unconscious.

0:04:38.213,0:04:41.309
Dreams are a form of consciousness[br]on this definition.

0:04:41.333,0:04:44.211
Now, that's the common-sense definition.[br]That's our target.

0:04:44.235,0:04:47.712
If you're not talking about that,[br]you're not talking about consciousness.

0:04:47.736,0:04:51.196
But they think, "Well, if that's it,[br]that's an awful problem.

0:04:51.220,0:04:55.154
How can such a thing exist[br]as part of the real world?"

0:04:55.178,0:04:57.512
And this, if you've ever[br]had a philosophy course,

0:04:57.536,0:05:00.263
this is known as the famous[br]mind-body problem.

0:05:00.287,0:05:03.526
I think that has a simple solution too.[br]I'm going to give it to you.

0:05:03.550,0:05:07.528
And here it is: All of our conscious[br]states, without exception,

0:05:07.552,0:05:13.053
are caused by lower-level[br]neurobiological processes in the brain,

0:05:13.077,0:05:15.234
and they are realized in the brain

0:05:15.258,0:05:17.568
as higher-level or system features.

0:05:17.592,0:05:20.724
It's about as mysterious[br]as the liquidity of water.

0:05:20.748,0:05:24.199
Right? The liquidity is not[br]an extra juice squirted out

0:05:24.223,0:05:25.889
by the H2O molecules.

0:05:25.913,0:05:28.767
It's a condition that the system is in.

0:05:28.791,0:05:33.929
And just as the jar full of water[br]can go from liquid to solid

0:05:33.953,0:05:36.001
depending on the behavior[br]of the molecules,

0:05:36.025,0:05:38.878
so your brain can go[br]from a state of being conscious

0:05:38.902,0:05:40.518
to a state of being unconscious,

0:05:40.542,0:05:43.504
depending on the behavior[br]of the molecules.

0:05:43.528,0:05:47.889
The famous mind-body[br]problem is that simple.

0:05:47.913,0:05:51.066
All right? But now we get[br]into some harder questions.

0:05:51.090,0:05:54.510
Let's specify the exact[br]features of consciousness,

0:05:54.534,0:05:56.982
so that we can then answer[br]those four objections

0:05:57.006,0:05:58.269
that I made to it.

0:05:58.293,0:06:02.536
Well, the first feature is,[br]it's real and irreducible.

0:06:02.560,0:06:04.590
You can't get rid of it.

0:06:04.614,0:06:08.761
You see, the distinction[br]between reality and illusion

0:06:08.785,0:06:11.430
is the distinction between how things

0:06:11.454,0:06:15.304
consciously seem to us[br]and how they really are.

0:06:15.328,0:06:17.180
It consciously seems like there's --

0:06:17.204,0:06:18.848
I like the French "arc-en-ciel" —

0:06:18.872,0:06:21.046
it seems like there's an arch in the sky,

0:06:21.070,0:06:24.826
or it seems like the sun[br]is setting over the mountains.

0:06:24.850,0:06:27.923
It consciously seems to us,[br]but that's not really happening.

0:06:27.947,0:06:29.850
But for that distinction between

0:06:29.874,0:06:32.351
how things consciously seem[br]and how they really are,

0:06:32.375,0:06:36.406
you can't make that distinction[br]for the very existence of consciousness,

0:06:36.430,0:06:40.257
because where the very existence[br]of consciousness is concerned,

0:06:40.281,0:06:43.237
if it consciously seems to you[br]that you are conscious,

0:06:43.261,0:06:45.122
you are conscious.

0:06:45.146,0:06:48.476
I mean, if a bunch of experts[br]come to me and say,

0:06:48.500,0:06:51.167
"We are heavy-duty neurobiologists[br]and we've done a study

0:06:51.191,0:06:53.917
of you, Searle, and we're[br]convinced you are not conscious,

0:06:53.941,0:06:55.989
you are a very cleverly[br]constructed robot,"

0:06:56.013,0:06:59.258
I don't think, "Well, maybe these[br]guys are right, you know?"

0:06:59.282,0:07:01.821
I don't think that for a moment,[br]because, I mean,

0:07:01.845,0:07:04.731
Descartes may have made a lot[br]of mistakes, but he was right about this.

0:07:04.755,0:07:07.686
You cannot doubt the existence[br]of your own consciousness.

0:07:07.710,0:07:09.996
Okay, that's the first[br]feature of consciousness.

0:07:10.020,0:07:11.800
It's real and irreducible.

0:07:11.824,0:07:15.031
You cannot get rid of it[br]by showing that it's an illusion

0:07:15.055,0:07:18.260
in a way that you can[br]with other standard illusions.

0:07:18.284,0:07:20.792
Okay, the second feature is this one

0:07:20.816,0:07:23.257
that has been such[br]a source of trouble to us,

0:07:23.281,0:07:25.439
and that is, all of our conscious states

0:07:25.463,0:07:28.403
have this qualitative character to them.

0:07:28.427,0:07:30.808
There's something that it[br]feels like to drink beer

0:07:30.832,0:07:33.753
which is not what it feels[br]like to do your income tax

0:07:33.777,0:07:36.821
or listen to music,[br]and this qualitative feel

0:07:36.845,0:07:39.382
automatically generates a third feature,

0:07:39.406,0:07:43.176
namely, conscious states[br]are by definition subjective

0:07:43.200,0:07:46.131
in the sense that they only exist[br]as experienced

0:07:46.155,0:07:48.326
by some human or animal subject,

0:07:48.350,0:07:50.199
some self that experiences them.

0:07:50.223,0:07:52.582
Maybe we'll be able to build[br]a conscious machine.

0:07:52.606,0:07:54.735
Since we don't know how our brains do it,

0:07:54.759,0:07:58.870
we're not in a position, so far,[br]to build a conscious machine.

0:07:58.894,0:08:01.645
Okay. Another feature of consciousness

0:08:01.669,0:08:05.796
is that it comes in unified[br]conscious fields.

0:08:05.820,0:08:08.152
So I don't just have the sight[br]of the people in front of me

0:08:08.176,0:08:10.866
and the sound of my voice[br]and the weight of my shoes

0:08:10.890,0:08:13.041
against the floor, but they occur to me

0:08:13.065,0:08:16.523
as part of one single[br]great conscious field

0:08:16.547,0:08:18.539
that stretches forward and backward.

0:08:18.563,0:08:20.308
That is the key to understanding

0:08:20.332,0:08:22.747
the enormous power of consciousness.

0:08:22.771,0:08:25.691
And we have not been able[br]to do that in a robot.

0:08:25.715,0:08:28.192
The disappointment of robotics[br]derives from the fact

0:08:28.216,0:08:30.550
that we don't know how to make[br]a conscious robot,

0:08:30.574,0:08:33.599
so we don't have a machine[br]that can do this kind of thing.

0:08:33.623,0:08:36.107
Okay, the next feature of consciousness,

0:08:36.131,0:08:39.222
after this marvelous[br]unified conscious field,

0:08:39.246,0:08:42.015
is that it functions[br]causally in our behavior.

0:08:42.039,0:08:45.218
I gave you a scientific[br]demonstration by raising my hand,

0:08:45.242,0:08:46.968
but how is that possible?

0:08:46.992,0:08:50.732
How can it be that this[br]thought in my brain

0:08:50.756,0:08:52.932
can move material objects?

0:08:52.956,0:08:54.433
Well, I'll tell you the answer.

0:08:54.457,0:08:56.457
I mean, we don't know the detailed answer,

0:08:56.481,0:08:59.159
but we know the basic part[br]of the answer, and that is,

0:08:59.183,0:09:01.452
there is a sequence of neuron firings,

0:09:01.476,0:09:04.539
and they terminate where the acetylcholine

0:09:04.563,0:09:07.360
is secreted at the axon[br]end-plates of the motor neurons.

0:09:07.384,0:09:09.480
Sorry to use philosophical[br]terminology here,

0:09:09.504,0:09:13.451
but when it's secreted at the axon[br]end-plates of the motor neurons,

0:09:13.475,0:09:16.237
a whole lot of wonderful things[br]happen in the ion channels

0:09:16.261,0:09:18.143
and the damned arm goes up.

0:09:18.167,0:09:20.267
Now, think of what I told you.

0:09:20.291,0:09:22.009
One and the same event,

0:09:22.033,0:09:25.044
my conscious decision to raise my arm

0:09:25.068,0:09:27.839
has a level of description[br]where it has all of these

0:09:27.863,0:09:29.985
touchy-feely spiritual qualities.

0:09:30.009,0:09:32.386
It's a thought in my brain,[br]but at the same time,

0:09:32.410,0:09:34.372
it's busy secreting acetylcholine

0:09:34.396,0:09:36.063
and doing all sorts of other things

0:09:36.087,0:09:38.695
as it makes its way from the motor cortex

0:09:38.719,0:09:41.392
down through the nerve fibers in the arm.

0:09:41.416,0:09:45.208
Now, what that tells us[br]is that our traditional vocabularies

0:09:45.232,0:09:48.592
for discussing these issues[br]are totally obsolete.

0:09:48.616,0:09:51.849
One and the same event has[br]a level of description

0:09:51.873,0:09:54.815
where it's neurobiological,[br]and another level of description

0:09:54.839,0:09:57.006
where it's mental,[br]and that's a single event,

0:09:57.030,0:09:59.554
and that's how nature works.[br]That's how it's possible

0:09:59.578,0:10:02.147
for consciousness to function causally.

0:10:02.171,0:10:05.006
Okay, now with that in mind,

0:10:05.030,0:10:08.073
with going through these various[br]features of consciousness,

0:10:08.097,0:10:11.245
let's go back and answer[br]some of those early objections.

0:10:11.269,0:10:14.854
Well, the first one I said was,[br]consciousness doesn't exist,

0:10:14.878,0:10:16.688
it's an illusion. Well,[br]I've already answered that.

0:10:16.712,0:10:18.712
I don't think we need to worry about that.

0:10:18.736,0:10:22.068
But the second one had[br]an incredible influence,

0:10:22.092,0:10:23.912
and may still be around, and that is,

0:10:23.936,0:10:27.103
"Well, if consciousness exists,[br]it's really something else.

0:10:27.127,0:10:30.866
It's really a digital computer[br]program running in your brain

0:10:30.890,0:10:33.414
and that's what we need to do[br]to create consciousness

0:10:33.438,0:10:34.867
is get the right program.

0:10:34.891,0:10:37.415
Yeah, forget about the hardware.[br]Any hardware will do

0:10:37.439,0:10:40.582
provided it's rich enough and stable[br]enough to carry the program."

0:10:40.606,0:10:43.140
Now, we know that that's wrong.

0:10:43.164,0:10:46.149
I mean, anybody who's thought[br]about computers at all

0:10:46.173,0:10:48.613
can see that that's wrong,[br]because computation

0:10:48.637,0:10:51.028
is defined as symbol manipulation,

0:10:51.052,0:10:53.957
usually thought of as zeros[br]as ones, but any symbols will do.

0:10:53.981,0:10:57.079
You get an algorithm that you can program

0:10:57.103,0:11:00.186
in a binary code,[br]and that's the defining trait

0:11:00.210,0:11:02.237
of the computer program.

0:11:02.261,0:11:06.120
But we know that that's purely[br]syntactical. That's symbolic.

0:11:06.144,0:11:10.135
We know that actual human consciousness[br]has something more than that.

0:11:10.159,0:11:13.328
It's got a content[br]in addition to the syntax.

0:11:13.352,0:11:14.825
It's got a semantics.

0:11:14.849,0:11:17.314
Now that argument, I made[br]that argument 30 --

0:11:17.338,0:11:18.605
oh my God, I don't want[br]to think about it —

0:11:18.629,0:11:19.947
more than 30 years ago,

0:11:19.971,0:11:22.876
but there's a deeper argument[br]implicit in what I've told you,

0:11:22.900,0:11:25.919
and I want to tell you that argument[br]briefly, and that is,

0:11:25.943,0:11:30.069
consciousness creates[br]an observer-independent reality.

0:11:30.093,0:11:33.557
It creates a reality of money,[br]property, government,

0:11:33.581,0:11:37.529
marriage, CERN conferences,

0:11:37.553,0:11:40.148
cocktail parties and summer vacations,

0:11:40.172,0:11:42.897
and all of those are creations[br]of consciousness.

0:11:42.921,0:11:45.732
Their existence is observer-relative.

0:11:45.756,0:11:49.235
It's only relative to conscious[br]agents that a piece of paper

0:11:49.259,0:11:52.082
is money or that a bunch[br]of buildings is a university.

0:11:52.106,0:11:55.956
Now, ask yourself about computation.

0:11:55.980,0:11:59.625
Is that absolute, like force and mass[br]and gravitational attraction?

0:11:59.649,0:12:01.757
Or is it observer-relative?

0:12:01.781,0:12:05.284
Well, some computations are intrinsic.

0:12:05.308,0:12:07.195
I add two plus two to get four.

0:12:07.219,0:12:09.766
That's going on no matter[br]what anybody thinks.

0:12:09.790,0:12:12.255
But when I haul out my pocket calculator

0:12:12.279,0:12:16.037
and do the calculation,[br]the only intrinsic phenomenon

0:12:16.061,0:12:19.212
is the electronic circuit[br]and its behavior.

0:12:19.236,0:12:20.976
That's the only absolute phenomenon.

0:12:21.000,0:12:23.404
All the rest is interpreted by us.

0:12:23.428,0:12:27.245
Computation only exists[br]relative to consciousness.

0:12:27.269,0:12:30.020
Either a conscious agent[br]is carrying out the computation,

0:12:30.044,0:12:33.806
or he's got a piece of machinery that admits[br]of a computational interpretation.

0:12:33.830,0:12:36.731
Now that doesn't mean[br]computation is arbitrary.

0:12:36.755,0:12:39.179
I spent a lot of money on this hardware.

0:12:39.203,0:12:41.325
But we have this persistent confusion

0:12:41.349,0:12:46.046
between objectivity and subjectivity[br]as features of reality

0:12:46.070,0:12:49.974
and objectivity and subjectivity[br]as features of claims.

0:12:49.998,0:12:53.140
And the bottom line of this[br]part of my talk is this:

0:12:53.164,0:12:56.791
You can have a completely[br]objective science,

0:12:56.815,0:12:59.703
a science where you make[br]objectively true claims,

0:12:59.727,0:13:03.133
about a domain whose existence[br]is subjective,

0:13:03.157,0:13:06.368
whose existence is in the human brain

0:13:06.392,0:13:08.507
consisting of subjective[br]states of sentience

0:13:08.531,0:13:10.192
or feeling or awareness.

0:13:10.216,0:13:14.529
So the objection that you can't have[br]an objective science of consciousness

0:13:14.553,0:13:18.737
because it's subjective and science[br]is objective, that's a pun.

0:13:18.761,0:13:21.446
That's a bad pun on objectivity[br]and subjectivity.

0:13:21.470,0:13:23.770
You can make objective claims

0:13:23.794,0:13:27.812
about a domain that is subjective[br]in its mode of existence,

0:13:27.836,0:13:29.385
and indeed that's what neurologists do.

0:13:29.409,0:13:31.933
I mean, you have patients[br]that actually suffer pains,

0:13:31.957,0:13:34.564
and you try to get[br]an objective science of that.

0:13:34.588,0:13:36.636
Okay, I promised to refute all these guys,

0:13:36.660,0:13:38.211
and I don't have an awful[br]lot of time left,

0:13:38.235,0:13:40.140
but let me refute a couple more of them.

0:13:40.164,0:13:42.354
I said that behaviorism ought to be

0:13:42.378,0:13:45.643
one of the great embarrassments[br]of our intellectual culture,

0:13:45.667,0:13:48.536
because it's refuted[br]the moment you think about it.

0:13:48.560,0:13:51.393
Your mental states are identical[br]with your behavior?

0:13:51.417,0:13:54.544
Well, think about the distinction[br]between feeling a pain

0:13:54.568,0:13:56.247
and engaging in pain behavior.

0:13:56.271,0:13:58.235
I won't demonstrate pain[br]behavior, but I can tell you

0:13:58.259,0:14:00.074
I'm not having any pains right now.

0:14:00.098,0:14:04.194
So it's an obvious mistake. Why[br]did they make the mistake?

0:14:04.218,0:14:06.409
The mistake was — and you[br]can go back and read

0:14:06.433,0:14:09.100
the literature on this, you[br]can see this over and over —

0:14:09.124,0:14:12.683
they think if you accept[br]the irreducible existence

0:14:12.707,0:14:15.478
of consciousness, you're[br]giving up on science.

0:14:15.502,0:14:18.549
You're giving up on 300[br]years of human progress

0:14:18.573,0:14:20.383
and human hope and all the rest of it.

0:14:20.407,0:14:23.198
And the message I want[br]to leave you with is,

0:14:23.222,0:14:25.641
consciousness has to become accepted

0:14:25.665,0:14:28.129
as a genuine biological phenomenon,

0:14:28.153,0:14:30.596
as much subject to scientific analysis

0:14:30.620,0:14:32.556
as any other phenomenon in biology,

0:14:32.580,0:14:34.710
or, for that matter, the rest of science.

0:14:34.734,0:14:36.092
Thank you very much.

0:14:36.116,0:14:41.609
(Applause)