0:00:00.464,0:00:03.057 I'm going to talk about consciousness. 0:00:03.081,0:00:04.537 Why consciousness? 0:00:04.561,0:00:07.363 Well, it's a curiously neglected subject, 0:00:07.387,0:00:10.927 both in our scientific[br]and our philosophical culture. 0:00:10.951,0:00:12.199 Now why is that curious? 0:00:12.223,0:00:15.709 Well, it is the most important[br]aspect of our lives 0:00:15.733,0:00:17.667 for a very simple, logical reason, 0:00:17.691,0:00:20.064 namely, it's a necessary[br]condition on anything 0:00:20.088,0:00:22.541 being important in our lives[br]that we're conscious. 0:00:22.565,0:00:25.700 You care about science, philosophy,[br]music, art, whatever -- 0:00:25.724,0:00:29.178 it's no good if you're[br]a zombie or in a coma, right? 0:00:29.202,0:00:31.522 So consciousness is number one. 0:00:31.546,0:00:33.990 The second reason is that when people do 0:00:34.014,0:00:36.306 get interested in it,[br]as I think they should, 0:00:36.330,0:00:39.157 they tend to say[br]the most appalling things. 0:00:39.181,0:00:41.801 And then, even when they're[br]not saying appalling things 0:00:41.825,0:00:44.159 and they're really trying[br]to do serious research, 0:00:44.183,0:00:47.300 well, it's been slow.[br]Progress has been slow. 0:00:47.324,0:00:50.440 When I first got interested[br]in this, I thought, well, 0:00:50.464,0:00:52.646 it's a straightforward problem in biology. 0:00:52.670,0:00:55.143 Let's get these brain stabbers[br]to get busy and figure out 0:00:55.167,0:00:56.027 how it works in the brain. 0:00:56.051,0:00:58.051 So I went over to UCSF and I talked to all 0:00:58.075,0:00:59.844 the heavy-duty neurobiologists there, 0:00:59.868,0:01:01.420 and they showed some impatience, 0:01:01.444,0:01:04.803 as scientists often do when you[br]ask them embarrassing questions. 0:01:04.827,0:01:08.561 But the thing that struck me is,[br]one guy said in exasperation, 0:01:08.585,0:01:10.728 a very famous neurobiologist,[br]he said, "Look, 0:01:10.752,0:01:14.151 in my discipline it's okay to be[br]interested in consciousness, 0:01:14.175,0:01:17.718 but get tenure first. Get tenure first." 0:01:17.742,0:01:20.436 Now I've been working[br]on this for a long time. 0:01:20.460,0:01:22.414 I think now you might actually get tenure 0:01:22.438,0:01:23.772 by working on consciousness. 0:01:23.796,0:01:26.318 If so, that's a real step forward. 0:01:26.342,0:01:29.223 Okay, now why then is this[br]curious reluctance 0:01:29.247,0:01:31.121 and curious hostility to consciousness? 0:01:31.145,0:01:33.851 Well, I think it's a combination[br]of two features 0:01:33.875,0:01:35.756 of our intellectual culture 0:01:35.780,0:01:38.282 that like to think they're[br]opposing each other 0:01:38.306,0:01:41.905 but in fact they share[br]a common set of assumptions. 0:01:41.929,0:01:45.867 One feature is the tradition[br]of religious dualism: 0:01:45.891,0:01:49.192 Consciousness is not a part[br]of the physical world. 0:01:49.216,0:01:51.119 It's a part of the spiritual world. 0:01:51.143,0:01:52.655 It belongs to the soul, 0:01:52.679,0:01:55.951 and the soul is not a part[br]of the physical world. 0:01:55.975,0:01:58.982 That's the tradition of God,[br]the soul and immortality. 0:01:59.006,0:02:01.087 There's another tradition[br]that thinks it's opposed to this 0:02:01.111,0:02:03.191 but accepts the worst assumption. 0:02:03.215,0:02:07.269 That tradition thinks that we are heavy-duty[br]scientific materialists: 0:02:07.293,0:02:10.734 Consciousness is not a part[br]of the physical world. 0:02:10.758,0:02:13.380 Either it doesn't exist at all,[br]or it's something else, 0:02:13.404,0:02:16.030 a computer program[br]or some damn fool thing, 0:02:16.054,0:02:19.225 but in any case it's not part of science. 0:02:19.249,0:02:21.433 And I used to get in an argument[br]that really gave me a stomachache. 0:02:21.457,0:02:23.052 Here's how it went. 0:02:23.076,0:02:27.084 Science is objective,[br]consciousness is subjective, 0:02:27.108,0:02:30.411 therefore there cannot be[br]a science of consciousness. 0:02:30.435,0:02:36.915 Okay, so these twin[br]traditions are paralyzing us. 0:02:36.939,0:02:39.783 It's very hard to get[br]out of these twin traditions. 0:02:39.807,0:02:42.801 And I have only one real[br]message in this lecture, 0:02:42.825,0:02:46.185 and that is, consciousness[br]is a biological phenomenon 0:02:46.209,0:02:49.074 like photosynthesis, digestion, mitosis -- 0:02:49.098,0:02:53.409 you know all the biological phenomena[br]-- and once you accept that, 0:02:53.433,0:02:56.048 most, though not all, of the hard problems 0:02:56.072,0:02:58.323 about consciousness simply evaporate. 0:02:58.347,0:03:00.376 And I'm going to go through some of them. 0:03:00.400,0:03:02.709 Okay, now I promised you to tell you some 0:03:02.733,0:03:05.448 of the outrageous things[br]said about consciousness. 0:03:05.472,0:03:09.048 One: Consciousness does not exist. 0:03:09.072,0:03:11.278 It's an illusion, like sunsets. 0:03:11.302,0:03:16.343 Science has shown sunsets[br]and rainbows are illusions. 0:03:16.367,0:03:18.266 So consciousness is an illusion. 0:03:18.290,0:03:21.521 Two: Well, maybe it exists,[br]but it's really something else. 0:03:21.545,0:03:25.302 It's a computer program[br]running in the brain. 0:03:25.326,0:03:29.116 Three: No, the only thing[br]that exists is really behavior. 0:03:29.140,0:03:32.724 It's embarrassing how influential[br]behaviorism was, 0:03:32.748,0:03:34.079 but I'll get back to that. 0:03:34.103,0:03:36.813 And four: Maybe consciousness exists, 0:03:36.837,0:03:39.028 but it can't make[br]any difference to the world. 0:03:39.052,0:03:41.748 How could spirituality move anything? 0:03:41.772,0:03:43.963 Now, whenever somebody[br]tells me that, I think, 0:03:43.987,0:03:46.253 you want to see spirituality[br]move something? 0:03:46.277,0:03:49.105 Watch. I decide consciously[br]to raise my arm, 0:03:49.129,0:03:51.714 and the damn thing goes up. (Laughter) 0:03:51.738,0:03:55.485 Furthermore, notice this: 0:03:55.509,0:03:59.480 We do not say, "Well, it's a bit[br]like the weather in Geneva. 0:03:59.504,0:04:02.128 Some days it goes up and some days[br]it doesn't go up." 0:04:02.152,0:04:04.783 No. It goes up whenever[br]I damn well want it to. 0:04:04.807,0:04:07.093 Okay. I'm going to tell[br]you how that's possible. 0:04:07.117,0:04:10.592 Now, I haven't yet given you a definition. 0:04:10.616,0:04:12.950 You can't do this if you[br]don't give a definition. 0:04:12.974,0:04:15.936 People always say consciousness[br]is very hard to define. 0:04:15.960,0:04:17.819 I think it's rather easy to define 0:04:17.843,0:04:20.028 if you're not trying to give[br]a scientific definition. 0:04:20.052,0:04:22.308 We're not ready[br]for a scientific definition, 0:04:22.332,0:04:24.094 but here's a common-sense definition. 0:04:24.118,0:04:26.896 Consciousness consists[br]of all those states of feeling 0:04:26.920,0:04:28.964 or sentience or awareness. 0:04:28.988,0:04:32.522 It begins in the morning when you[br]wake up from a dreamless sleep, 0:04:32.546,0:04:34.991 and it goes on all day[br]until you fall asleep 0:04:35.015,0:04:38.189 or die or otherwise become unconscious. 0:04:38.213,0:04:41.309 Dreams are a form of consciousness[br]on this definition. 0:04:41.333,0:04:44.211 Now, that's the common-sense definition.[br]That's our target. 0:04:44.235,0:04:47.712 If you're not talking about that,[br]you're not talking about consciousness. 0:04:47.736,0:04:51.196 But they think, "Well, if that's it,[br]that's an awful problem. 0:04:51.220,0:04:55.154 How can such a thing exist[br]as part of the real world?" 0:04:55.178,0:04:57.512 And this, if you've ever[br]had a philosophy course, 0:04:57.536,0:05:00.263 this is known as the famous[br]mind-body problem. 0:05:00.287,0:05:03.526 I think that has a simple solution too.[br]I'm going to give it to you. 0:05:03.550,0:05:07.528 And here it is: All of our conscious[br]states, without exception, 0:05:07.552,0:05:13.053 are caused by lower-level[br]neurobiological processes in the brain, 0:05:13.077,0:05:15.234 and they are realized in the brain 0:05:15.258,0:05:17.568 as higher-level or system features. 0:05:17.592,0:05:20.724 It's about as mysterious[br]as the liquidity of water. 0:05:20.748,0:05:24.199 Right? The liquidity is not[br]an extra juice squirted out 0:05:24.223,0:05:25.889 by the H2O molecules. 0:05:25.913,0:05:28.767 It's a condition that the system is in. 0:05:28.791,0:05:33.929 And just as the jar full of water[br]can go from liquid to solid 0:05:33.953,0:05:36.001 depending on the behavior[br]of the molecules, 0:05:36.025,0:05:38.878 so your brain can go[br]from a state of being conscious 0:05:38.902,0:05:40.518 to a state of being unconscious, 0:05:40.542,0:05:43.504 depending on the behavior[br]of the molecules. 0:05:43.528,0:05:47.889 The famous mind-body[br]problem is that simple. 0:05:47.913,0:05:51.066 All right? But now we get[br]into some harder questions. 0:05:51.090,0:05:54.510 Let's specify the exact[br]features of consciousness, 0:05:54.534,0:05:56.982 so that we can then answer[br]those four objections 0:05:57.006,0:05:58.269 that I made to it. 0:05:58.293,0:06:02.536 Well, the first feature is,[br]it's real and irreducible. 0:06:02.560,0:06:04.590 You can't get rid of it. 0:06:04.614,0:06:08.761 You see, the distinction[br]between reality and illusion 0:06:08.785,0:06:11.430 is the distinction between how things 0:06:11.454,0:06:15.304 consciously seem to us[br]and how they really are. 0:06:15.328,0:06:17.180 It consciously seems like there's -- 0:06:17.204,0:06:18.848 I like the French "arc-en-ciel" — 0:06:18.872,0:06:21.046 it seems like there's an arch in the sky, 0:06:21.070,0:06:24.826 or it seems like the sun[br]is setting over the mountains. 0:06:24.850,0:06:27.923 It consciously seems to us,[br]but that's not really happening. 0:06:27.947,0:06:29.850 But for that distinction between 0:06:29.874,0:06:32.351 how things consciously seem[br]and how they really are, 0:06:32.375,0:06:36.406 you can't make that distinction[br]for the very existence of consciousness, 0:06:36.430,0:06:40.257 because where the very existence[br]of consciousness is concerned, 0:06:40.281,0:06:43.237 if it consciously seems to you[br]that you are conscious, 0:06:43.261,0:06:45.122 you are conscious. 0:06:45.146,0:06:48.476 I mean, if a bunch of experts[br]come to me and say, 0:06:48.500,0:06:51.167 "We are heavy-duty neurobiologists[br]and we've done a study 0:06:51.191,0:06:53.917 of you, Searle, and we're[br]convinced you are not conscious, 0:06:53.941,0:06:55.989 you are a very cleverly[br]constructed robot," 0:06:56.013,0:06:59.258 I don't think, "Well, maybe these[br]guys are right, you know?" 0:06:59.282,0:07:01.821 I don't think that for a moment,[br]because, I mean, 0:07:01.845,0:07:04.731 Descartes may have made a lot[br]of mistakes, but he was right about this. 0:07:04.755,0:07:07.686 You cannot doubt the existence[br]of your own consciousness. 0:07:07.710,0:07:09.996 Okay, that's the first[br]feature of consciousness. 0:07:10.020,0:07:11.800 It's real and irreducible. 0:07:11.824,0:07:15.031 You cannot get rid of it[br]by showing that it's an illusion 0:07:15.055,0:07:18.260 in a way that you can[br]with other standard illusions. 0:07:18.284,0:07:20.792 Okay, the second feature is this one 0:07:20.816,0:07:23.257 that has been such[br]a source of trouble to us, 0:07:23.281,0:07:25.439 and that is, all of our conscious states 0:07:25.463,0:07:28.403 have this qualitative character to them. 0:07:28.427,0:07:30.808 There's something that it[br]feels like to drink beer 0:07:30.832,0:07:33.753 which is not what it feels[br]like to do your income tax 0:07:33.777,0:07:36.821 or listen to music,[br]and this qualitative feel 0:07:36.845,0:07:39.382 automatically generates a third feature, 0:07:39.406,0:07:43.176 namely, conscious states[br]are by definition subjective 0:07:43.200,0:07:46.131 in the sense that they only exist[br]as experienced 0:07:46.155,0:07:48.326 by some human or animal subject, 0:07:48.350,0:07:50.199 some self that experiences them. 0:07:50.223,0:07:52.582 Maybe we'll be able to build[br]a conscious machine. 0:07:52.606,0:07:54.735 Since we don't know how our brains do it, 0:07:54.759,0:07:58.870 we're not in a position, so far,[br]to build a conscious machine. 0:07:58.894,0:08:01.645 Okay. Another feature of consciousness 0:08:01.669,0:08:05.796 is that it comes in unified[br]conscious fields. 0:08:05.820,0:08:08.152 So I don't just have the sight[br]of the people in front of me 0:08:08.176,0:08:10.866 and the sound of my voice[br]and the weight of my shoes 0:08:10.890,0:08:13.041 against the floor, but they occur to me 0:08:13.065,0:08:16.523 as part of one single[br]great conscious field 0:08:16.547,0:08:18.539 that stretches forward and backward. 0:08:18.563,0:08:20.308 That is the key to understanding 0:08:20.332,0:08:22.747 the enormous power of consciousness. 0:08:22.771,0:08:25.691 And we have not been able[br]to do that in a robot. 0:08:25.715,0:08:28.192 The disappointment of robotics[br]derives from the fact 0:08:28.216,0:08:30.550 that we don't know how to make[br]a conscious robot, 0:08:30.574,0:08:33.599 so we don't have a machine[br]that can do this kind of thing. 0:08:33.623,0:08:36.107 Okay, the next feature of consciousness, 0:08:36.131,0:08:39.222 after this marvelous[br]unified conscious field, 0:08:39.246,0:08:42.015 is that it functions[br]causally in our behavior. 0:08:42.039,0:08:45.218 I gave you a scientific[br]demonstration by raising my hand, 0:08:45.242,0:08:46.968 but how is that possible? 0:08:46.992,0:08:50.732 How can it be that this[br]thought in my brain 0:08:50.756,0:08:52.932 can move material objects? 0:08:52.956,0:08:54.433 Well, I'll tell you the answer. 0:08:54.457,0:08:56.457 I mean, we don't know the detailed answer, 0:08:56.481,0:08:59.159 but we know the basic part[br]of the answer, and that is, 0:08:59.183,0:09:01.452 there is a sequence of neuron firings, 0:09:01.476,0:09:04.539 and they terminate where the acetylcholine 0:09:04.563,0:09:07.360 is secreted at the axon[br]end-plates of the motor neurons. 0:09:07.384,0:09:09.480 Sorry to use philosophical[br]terminology here, 0:09:09.504,0:09:13.451 but when it's secreted at the axon[br]end-plates of the motor neurons, 0:09:13.475,0:09:16.237 a whole lot of wonderful things[br]happen in the ion channels 0:09:16.261,0:09:18.143 and the damned arm goes up. 0:09:18.167,0:09:20.267 Now, think of what I told you. 0:09:20.291,0:09:22.009 One and the same event, 0:09:22.033,0:09:25.044 my conscious decision to raise my arm 0:09:25.068,0:09:27.839 has a level of description[br]where it has all of these 0:09:27.863,0:09:29.985 touchy-feely spiritual qualities. 0:09:30.009,0:09:32.386 It's a thought in my brain,[br]but at the same time, 0:09:32.410,0:09:34.372 it's busy secreting acetylcholine 0:09:34.396,0:09:36.063 and doing all sorts of other things 0:09:36.087,0:09:38.695 as it makes its way from the motor cortex 0:09:38.719,0:09:41.392 down through the nerve fibers in the arm. 0:09:41.416,0:09:45.208 Now, what that tells us[br]is that our traditional vocabularies 0:09:45.232,0:09:48.592 for discussing these issues[br]are totally obsolete. 0:09:48.616,0:09:51.849 One and the same event has[br]a level of description 0:09:51.873,0:09:54.815 where it's neurobiological,[br]and another level of description 0:09:54.839,0:09:57.006 where it's mental,[br]and that's a single event, 0:09:57.030,0:09:59.554 and that's how nature works.[br]That's how it's possible 0:09:59.578,0:10:02.147 for consciousness to function causally. 0:10:02.171,0:10:05.006 Okay, now with that in mind, 0:10:05.030,0:10:08.073 with going through these various[br]features of consciousness, 0:10:08.097,0:10:11.245 let's go back and answer[br]some of those early objections. 0:10:11.269,0:10:14.854 Well, the first one I said was,[br]consciousness doesn't exist, 0:10:14.878,0:10:16.688 it's an illusion. Well,[br]I've already answered that. 0:10:16.712,0:10:18.712 I don't think we need to worry about that. 0:10:18.736,0:10:22.068 But the second one had[br]an incredible influence, 0:10:22.092,0:10:23.912 and may still be around, and that is, 0:10:23.936,0:10:27.103 "Well, if consciousness exists,[br]it's really something else. 0:10:27.127,0:10:30.866 It's really a digital computer[br]program running in your brain 0:10:30.890,0:10:33.414 and that's what we need to do[br]to create consciousness 0:10:33.438,0:10:34.867 is get the right program. 0:10:34.891,0:10:37.415 Yeah, forget about the hardware.[br]Any hardware will do 0:10:37.439,0:10:40.582 provided it's rich enough and stable[br]enough to carry the program." 0:10:40.606,0:10:43.140 Now, we know that that's wrong. 0:10:43.164,0:10:46.149 I mean, anybody who's thought[br]about computers at all 0:10:46.173,0:10:48.613 can see that that's wrong,[br]because computation 0:10:48.637,0:10:51.028 is defined as symbol manipulation, 0:10:51.052,0:10:53.957 usually thought of as zeros[br]as ones, but any symbols will do. 0:10:53.981,0:10:57.079 You get an algorithm that you can program 0:10:57.103,0:11:00.186 in a binary code,[br]and that's the defining trait 0:11:00.210,0:11:02.237 of the computer program. 0:11:02.261,0:11:06.120 But we know that that's purely[br]syntactical. That's symbolic. 0:11:06.144,0:11:10.135 We know that actual human consciousness[br]has something more than that. 0:11:10.159,0:11:13.328 It's got a content[br]in addition to the syntax. 0:11:13.352,0:11:14.825 It's got a semantics. 0:11:14.849,0:11:17.314 Now that argument, I made[br]that argument 30 -- 0:11:17.338,0:11:18.605 oh my God, I don't want[br]to think about it — 0:11:18.629,0:11:19.947 more than 30 years ago, 0:11:19.971,0:11:22.876 but there's a deeper argument[br]implicit in what I've told you, 0:11:22.900,0:11:25.919 and I want to tell you that argument[br]briefly, and that is, 0:11:25.943,0:11:30.069 consciousness creates[br]an observer-independent reality. 0:11:30.093,0:11:33.557 It creates a reality of money,[br]property, government, 0:11:33.581,0:11:37.529 marriage, CERN conferences, 0:11:37.553,0:11:40.148 cocktail parties and summer vacations, 0:11:40.172,0:11:42.897 and all of those are creations[br]of consciousness. 0:11:42.921,0:11:45.732 Their existence is observer-relative. 0:11:45.756,0:11:49.235 It's only relative to conscious[br]agents that a piece of paper 0:11:49.259,0:11:52.082 is money or that a bunch[br]of buildings is a university. 0:11:52.106,0:11:55.956 Now, ask yourself about computation. 0:11:55.980,0:11:59.625 Is that absolute, like force and mass[br]and gravitational attraction? 0:11:59.649,0:12:01.757 Or is it observer-relative? 0:12:01.781,0:12:05.284 Well, some computations are intrinsic. 0:12:05.308,0:12:07.195 I add two plus two to get four. 0:12:07.219,0:12:09.766 That's going on no matter[br]what anybody thinks. 0:12:09.790,0:12:12.255 But when I haul out my pocket calculator 0:12:12.279,0:12:16.037 and do the calculation,[br]the only intrinsic phenomenon 0:12:16.061,0:12:19.212 is the electronic circuit[br]and its behavior. 0:12:19.236,0:12:20.976 That's the only absolute phenomenon. 0:12:21.000,0:12:23.404 All the rest is interpreted by us. 0:12:23.428,0:12:27.245 Computation only exists[br]relative to consciousness. 0:12:27.269,0:12:30.020 Either a conscious agent[br]is carrying out the computation, 0:12:30.044,0:12:33.806 or he's got a piece of machinery that admits[br]of a computational interpretation. 0:12:33.830,0:12:36.731 Now that doesn't mean[br]computation is arbitrary. 0:12:36.755,0:12:39.179 I spent a lot of money on this hardware. 0:12:39.203,0:12:41.325 But we have this persistent confusion 0:12:41.349,0:12:46.046 between objectivity and subjectivity[br]as features of reality 0:12:46.070,0:12:49.974 and objectivity and subjectivity[br]as features of claims. 0:12:49.998,0:12:53.140 And the bottom line of this[br]part of my talk is this: 0:12:53.164,0:12:56.791 You can have a completely[br]objective science, 0:12:56.815,0:12:59.703 a science where you make[br]objectively true claims, 0:12:59.727,0:13:03.133 about a domain whose existence[br]is subjective, 0:13:03.157,0:13:06.368 whose existence is in the human brain 0:13:06.392,0:13:08.507 consisting of subjective[br]states of sentience 0:13:08.531,0:13:10.192 or feeling or awareness. 0:13:10.216,0:13:14.529 So the objection that you can't have[br]an objective science of consciousness 0:13:14.553,0:13:18.737 because it's subjective and science[br]is objective, that's a pun. 0:13:18.761,0:13:21.446 That's a bad pun on objectivity[br]and subjectivity. 0:13:21.470,0:13:23.770 You can make objective claims 0:13:23.794,0:13:27.812 about a domain that is subjective[br]in its mode of existence, 0:13:27.836,0:13:29.385 and indeed that's what neurologists do. 0:13:29.409,0:13:31.933 I mean, you have patients[br]that actually suffer pains, 0:13:31.957,0:13:34.564 and you try to get[br]an objective science of that. 0:13:34.588,0:13:36.636 Okay, I promised to refute all these guys, 0:13:36.660,0:13:38.211 and I don't have an awful[br]lot of time left, 0:13:38.235,0:13:40.140 but let me refute a couple more of them. 0:13:40.164,0:13:42.354 I said that behaviorism ought to be 0:13:42.378,0:13:45.643 one of the great embarrassments[br]of our intellectual culture, 0:13:45.667,0:13:48.536 because it's refuted[br]the moment you think about it. 0:13:48.560,0:13:51.393 Your mental states are identical[br]with your behavior? 0:13:51.417,0:13:54.544 Well, think about the distinction[br]between feeling a pain 0:13:54.568,0:13:56.247 and engaging in pain behavior. 0:13:56.271,0:13:58.235 I won't demonstrate pain[br]behavior, but I can tell you 0:13:58.259,0:14:00.074 I'm not having any pains right now. 0:14:00.098,0:14:04.194 So it's an obvious mistake. Why[br]did they make the mistake? 0:14:04.218,0:14:06.409 The mistake was — and you[br]can go back and read 0:14:06.433,0:14:09.100 the literature on this, you[br]can see this over and over — 0:14:09.124,0:14:12.683 they think if you accept[br]the irreducible existence 0:14:12.707,0:14:15.478 of consciousness, you're[br]giving up on science. 0:14:15.502,0:14:18.549 You're giving up on 300[br]years of human progress 0:14:18.573,0:14:20.383 and human hope and all the rest of it. 0:14:20.407,0:14:23.198 And the message I want[br]to leave you with is, 0:14:23.222,0:14:25.641 consciousness has to become accepted 0:14:25.665,0:14:28.129 as a genuine biological phenomenon, 0:14:28.153,0:14:30.596 as much subject to scientific analysis 0:14:30.620,0:14:32.556 as any other phenomenon in biology, 0:14:32.580,0:14:34.710 or, for that matter, the rest of science. 0:14:34.734,0:14:36.092 Thank you very much. 0:14:36.116,0:14:41.609 (Applause)