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rc3 preroll music
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Herald: Welcome back in Halle with Chaos
Zone TV, the next talk, will have
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interactive elements, so here are the
hashtags again. We're on Mastodon with
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@Twitter with the hashtag RC3 Chaos
Zone and on the IRC channel in Heckint and
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which is RC3 Dash Chaos Zone. All right. Lisette
will now speak to us with a talk called
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"What the Health Beyond Genome
Sequencing". Since the 80s, the Human
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Genome Project set goals to technical and
ethical goals to understand the human
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genome. In recent years, these goals have
been achieved, and humanity could profit
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immensely from what the sciences and the
technology the methods could be developed
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through the project. Lisette works at the
bleeding edge of what it is now a hard
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data science. We are very excited to hear
about the considerations and the
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practicalities of advancing the biology
even further.
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Lisette: OK. Yeah, thank you very much for
the introduction. It's my pleasure to give
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some insights into what I've learned
throughout my studies and what I'm now
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actually also working on. So thank you for
providing me this slot. I was a little bit
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surprised when I thought, Oh, OK, now I
actually have to give the talk. So please
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forgive me if I'm sort of nervous, but
stay with me and thank you everyone for
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watching and for filling in the survey
beforehand, and you will have another
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option to participate in the poll later
on. So I have some things to announce
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first, which would be about the content.
So it will all be very abstract. So we are
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talking more about concepts than
about actual disease and suffering. So
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there will be no photos. But yeah, the
general theme is about medical
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examination, everything clinical, about
the patient assessing somebody's disease
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and disease risk, and also going into the
more severe conditions of which you might
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die. And we also touch upon family
relationships. So just so you know, yeah,
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it will come back every now and then. So
just for everyone to be aware. And then
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also, yeah, I need to disclose that I'm an
employee of a company that does work on
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marketing genetic tests. So that set
aside, this is not this is not any kind of
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advertising talk. It's really about what
is actually happening technology wise. So
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I want to give you the insights into a
little bit of the technology, how it came
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about and where we are now, and also try
and give you an overview of what are the
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options in terms of genetic testing for
various utilitys and raise awareness just
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for also the ethnical issues that might
arise from what we can learn from our DNA.
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So this is enough of the prolog. Let's go
right into looking at a patient which is
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classically done from the outside. So we
want to know what is different about this
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person or a patient. And yeah, there are
really layers of information, and you
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always assume that there's a relationship
with a condition. So be it a rash that you
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see on the outside or as swelling that the
doctor can't feel or something that they
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learn from interrogating the patient. And
then there's a bit of a borderline outside
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inside test, which would be bodily fluids.
So if you test urine, saliva, blood, yeah,
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you already look on the inside. So what's
happening inside of the patient and the
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metabolome? Yeah, what's what's going on
in terms of small molecules that you might
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detect with the one or the other test? And
also what you can see on the inside is
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broken bones or cysts that shouldn't be
there. So for that, we use imaging which
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where x-ray is the oldest, and then
there's magnetic resonance and pet
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scanning. So these are like the cool,
advanced additional layers where you can
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look inside of the of the patient. And
then of course, there's DNA. So if we look
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even deeper and inside each cell, you will
have the genetic code of this person, so
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to tell how they are different on a very
small scale. So that is the dogma of
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molecular biology that you go from DNA,
which is your genetic blueprint, and then
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certain parts are transcribed so the cell
makes copies of the DNA, which what I'm
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called RNA, because it's a different
chemistry and these are then translated
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into chains of amino acids, so there's a
code which amino acid should be attached
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to which one. And then you fold it
properly and then you have a functional
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protein. And then now why you sequence the
DNA is because you assume that there's a
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mistake made, which then leads to a faulty
protein. And then in the end, something in
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your body doesn't work. So, yeah, it's a
very simple concept, if you will. And
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then, yeah, when we check in the DNA and
in the RNA is about 20000 protein coding
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genes. And then there's also a different
types of RNA that do not code for proteins
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that regulate other stuff so that the
correct genes are actually transcribed and
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translated. So that's an additional 20 to
30 thousand, potentially more. And so if
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you combine any of these two, see like a
certain signature of a person, you already
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have billions of combinations. So as you
can imagine, there are many, many, many
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signatures possible. But yeah, which of
these will actually tell you something
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about the patient? So. Let's go back to
how we sequence the DNA. So it is actually
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very simple. All of our usually 46
chromosomes so that 23 pairs are made of
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at double stranded code, which is the DNA.
And then you see here in the unfolded
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region that where a gene is starting, it
usually starts with A T G and these are
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ciramated bases. So you have here in the
chemical metal insert and the A and the T,
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which form a pair. So the red thing is in
between are hydrogen bonds that keep them
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together. And A and T always want to be
together. And C and G always want to be
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together. C and G actually form three of
those bonds. So in a little bit more
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stable. And so as you can see, this double
stranded DNA is hands always inverted on
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the other strand, so we call it the
complementary strands. So if you have ATG
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on one strand, you always have TAC on the
other. So you only sequence one and we
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defines the direction of the gene because
we know in which direction it makes sense
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because, you know, only in one direction
you can then make a protein out of this
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code. So enough for the chemistry and the
principle. So we really want to know and
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to map where on each chromosome, which
letter occurs. So you can imagine that
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this is quite an adventure and takes a lot
of effort. And actually, it has also
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started very early on in the 70s. So maybe
you have heard of Sanger sequencing. So
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that was the first generation of
sequencing from 1977, where you
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essentially cut the strand in little
pieces and you know which one ends with an
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A, ends with a T.. So you have all kinds of
fragments with different lengths which run
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over a gel, which is not that important.
But it's it is also called capillary
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sequencing, which then helped finding the
first human disease gene, which is called
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the Huntington team. You might heard of the
disease where it belongs to Korea,
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Huntington's. And so this was the first
association that was really confirmed
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that, OK, you have a defect in a certain
gene, which directly translates into a
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disease phenotype, but this is very rare.
So usually it is a lot more complex and we
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will also get to that. So the capillary
sequencing still lasted for a while, so 10
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years later, you had really cool
instruments for the first time from
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Applied Biosystems so that you can
sequence a little bit quicker, but still
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far from looking at the whole genome. So
that was then planned starting in 1988.
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They defined the goals for the Human
Genome Project, which would then take from
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1990 until 2003 to complete one full human
genome. So full in the sense that it still
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had gaps. So there are some regions which
are tricky to sequence, so these gaps were
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filled later on. But still, yeah, this was
a huge undertaking which cost about two to
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three billion US dollars. And eventually,
in 2000, they announced that they had a
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first draft of the human genome, and then
it got published in 2001 in the two big
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scientific journals, Nature and Science,
both on the cover the human genome. So
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that was and is a big step. So it's yeah,
that's just crucial to know, what we are
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looking at to have a map of our complete
genome, where then you can map other
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people's sequences to as well. So that's
what started also in 2005. But then for
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different types of cancer, it's called
TCGA from the genome, the Cancer Genome
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Atlas, and it also lasted for a couple of
years. But then they were much quicker in
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sequencing, because 2005 was also the year
of next generation sequencing machines. So
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nowadays we don't do Sanger sequencing
anymore or rarely. We usually rely on
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heavy, high throughput parallel sequencing
so that you can sequence a lot more
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different pieces, so to say, at the same
time and with very high accuracy. So
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essentially, this means, that we now have
access to 3.1 billion base pairs, which
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were first collected during this human
genome project. And this nice
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advertisement when they were looking for
volunteers is really cute, actually,
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because they also say here that this photo
of the project will have tremendous impact
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on future progress of medical science and
lead to improved diagnosis and treatment
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of hereditary diseases. Volunteers will
receive information about the project and
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sign a consent form. No personal
information will be maintained or
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transferred, and a small monetary
embarrassment will be provided. So, yeah,
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they were promised that their data would
be kept anonymously and also they
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collected blood from female volunteers or
sperm from male volunteers. And then they
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collected a lot more samples than what
they would need so that in the end, you
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couldn't tell anymore from whom the genome
was actually derived. And there was one
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volunteer at Roswell Park and hence called
RP11, who had happened to have
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exceptional quality sequencing reads. And
then so the first human genome was mainly
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based on this one person, and we have
multiple new versions published of the
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human reference genome today. Its version
38 and still about 70 percent are
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untouched from this first genome assembly.
And a small thing about the cost. So I
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mentioned that this was a really costly
project. Two to three billion dollars. And
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now we have actually cracked the $1000
threshold. So it is possible to sequence a
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full human genome for about a thousand
bucks, which is remarkable. So this is
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really an enormous drop in the cost just
because the technology made such a big
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leap when we came to the next generation
sequencing. And also one genome. If you
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have it sufficiently covered so that you
are sure about which base pairs and which
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position, then you have about 180
gigabytes of raw rids. And if you align
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them to the reference genome, which is, of
course, now your atlas, if you will, so
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you can put all our rids to the correct
place. And then this is called an
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alignment file, which is about 80
gigabytes. And if you then only keep the
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positions where something is different
from the reference genome and you compress
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it, you are left with about 5 percent
of that. So 4 gigabytes per person.
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Storable, nice little genome. OK. So this
takes me to the first poll, which is on
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simple vote. A couple of people
already have participated in the monkey
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survey. Then, yeah, you don't have to do
it again now, but the vote link will also
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be in. And you also just fill in any name
combination of letters, click OK, and then
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you can answer the first question, which I
present here. So this is just three
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statements about sequencing a full human
genome. Whether you believe that it has
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replaced fingerprinting in forensic
investigations, where do you think that it
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gives you all the clinically relevant
information for any patient and whether
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you think that it is cheaper than a full
body MRI scan? So yeah, we will get to the
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results in a bit. I will just continue
with a couple more slides and then we can
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see. What do you guys think, and I'm
really curious to actually hear that. And
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see it for myself. Let's see. So if you
think in terms of complexity, we have
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already touched upon Korea, Huntington,
which is a single gene, essentially that
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gives you a full blown disease if it's not
encoded properly. And then you could think
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of other diseases that are encoded by a
couple of genes, where you can think of
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breast cancer over a couple of mutated
genes can give you a much higher risk than
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average population. And also in
Alzheimer's disease, we see that
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hereditary component. Brought about by a
couple of genes again and then more
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general in terms of unknown diseases, you
can ask gene panels or full genome
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sequencing to help out. And it gets more
and more fuzzy, but more and more also,
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tests are available if you want to go to a
prognosis for this or that condition or to
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the correct treatment choice. So I'll try
and give you a couple of more examples,
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but only after we have talked about the
Cancer Genome Atlas, the PCGA . So here
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that's also a lot of data. So they claim
2.5 petabytes were collected in the place
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it was running from 2006 to 2014. And
yeah, in total, 33 different tumor types.
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And they did not only look at the DNA and
all the mutations, but also RNA and also
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proteins, and also different info on the
patient's survival and treatment data. So
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that is a huge pool and resource of data
where people are looking at and finding
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signatures of patients with less or more
advanced cancers with patients that
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progress through treatment or not. But
it's all. Yeah, you still really need to
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take it with a pinch of salt because, for
example, since 2006, treatment of cancer
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has changed tremendously, and you cannot
just use any signature that you took from
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the data from PCGA and extrapolate for
today's cancer patients. So that's a bit
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tricky. PCGA still vastly used. But then,
yeah, I would propose that you should
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rather use it for validation so you find
something in current data from today's
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patients and then you can check whether
this was also seen in the PCGA data and not
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the other way around. But let's get to the
results of the poll. See? Can we go there?
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What happens? Oh, nice. What's the score?
7.3 So you mostly agree that full body MRI
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is more expensive than the full genome
sequencing, which is true. So like I said,
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the whole genome is now about 1000 dollars,
also 1000 euros, and the full body scan in
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the MRI will cost about two to six
thousand euros, roughly. And then this one
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with the fingerprints I have made up. So
sorry to fool you. This is not done yet.
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And it also cannot potentially give you
all clinically relevant information about
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the patient. So nice. Thank you for
participating. And also, I check the
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survey monkey and also there. I have
managed to fool some people into believing
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that. It's possible to replace
fingerprinting with full genome
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sequencing, where that's not true. Sorry.
So let's go to another level. So not only
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the DNA sequencing is interesting. So then
you have the map and on the property,
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sorry, on the DNA strand, you know, for
example, where there's a different letter,
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if you will. And then in the reference
genome, and then this mutation might be in
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one of the regions where the DNA has
stored the code for a certain protein like
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protein one or protein two. So the code
might be different, but also it might be
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different how many copies are made. So
this is an example here where gene one and
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two are equally often transcribed. And
then there's these transcripts, which we
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call messenger RNA about equal amounts.
And this is, let's say, the state how it
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should be in the healthy adult. And if you
think about any condition like a cancer
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tumor, then it might get deregulated and
the cancer, for example, then there's this
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and only makes very few copies of gene
one. And a lot of copies of gene two,
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which might lead to effects like bigger
growth, faster faster growth, bigger
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spread into the tissue, which would
normally confine the tumor. So that is
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also one level of regulation and that you
cannot usually capture with DNA sequencing
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or whole genome sequencing. For that, you
need to check for the expression which you
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do on this level, on the RNA level. And
then you have they call in differential
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expression, which gives you this kind of
picture analysis. So you have some
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samples, vertical and then horizontal are
the genes, and you see that if you compare
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the samples, some genes are more
expressed, which is red and some genes are
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down compared to the others, which is
green. And then you can find clusters of
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genes, a group of genes here in the red
bar, where Group one, in that case, a
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certain kind of breast cancer is highly
upregulated and most of the people I
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belong to, group two different kind of
breast cancer have lower expression of
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that team and and the blue cluster is the
other way around. So that gives you an
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idea of OK, you can maybe use one of these
genes to differentiate between the two
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groups. And if that helps you to determine
what treatment they should get, that's of
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course, super useful. And then you have
something like a genetic biomarker. If you
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have multiple genes, then you usually call
it a signature. And so these genetic
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signature tests can tell you, are you at
risk of a certain disease? They can help
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diagnose or get to the exact subtype of of
your disease. They can help you with the
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correct treatment or monitor whether the
disease actually responds to the
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treatment, whether anything changes back
to normal. And also, it can sometimes be
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useful to give a prognosis for a disease
progression. So in the end, you always
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need to wonder what is the added value of
such kind of testing on top of the
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clinical variables that are already
existing and does give you something
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actionable? What can you do something with
the knowledge that you gained from this
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testing? So there we are already at the
problems with genetic testing. So that
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would be the second question that you can
answer again on Simple Vote. Please feel
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invited to help me understand what you
think. And here it's just. For you
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personally, the question whether you would
want to know whether you are at risk of a
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genetic disease and would you want to know
if you had to pay for it and then slide it
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to the right, if you're willing to pay or
slide it to the left, if you're totally
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not willing to. And then the second slide
is the same question when you want to know
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if you got the results for free? And then
to the right is yes, and more to the left
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is no, absolutely not. So again, I will
just move on and you can take your time
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answering that one. So to give you a bit
of a feeling for what is at stake is the
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get WHO into testing for genetic risks.
It's, of course, good to know your family
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history of disease. And also, if you're
planning to have children, for example,
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would you want them to know that they
potentially carry a certain risk or not?
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Then health or life insurance might have
an interest in knowing what people's risks
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are, what they have to expect. So there
are certain instances where they are
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eligible to know and certain instances
where at this moment in time, they
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absolutely are not. So this is something
that's probably going to change in the
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future. The more we know, the more we want
to use that knowledge. And then there's
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00:31:05,680 --> 00:31:11,520
the problem that some genes are very often
found to be up and downregulated, and
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00:31:11,520 --> 00:31:17,840
there seems to be a difference. But it's
just yeah, in the nature of those genes,
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and we have sometimes multiple signatures
for the same problem. And then, yeah,
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doctors and patients just don't know what
to choose from. So I'll go through some of
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those issues in more detail. I have
mentioned the TCGA before, and this cancer
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genome atlas is really a limited source
that is now exhausted, but it's still
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oftentimes used as the silver bullet. So.
Let's see if we already have votes. Well.
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So that would be. Yes. OK, so if you if
you could know your genetic risk and you
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would get it for free, then most people
are inclined to say, yes, I would like
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that very much. And if they had to pay for
it, then it seems to go more towards no,
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but it's actually kind of neutral, which
was surprising. Yeah, I would have thought
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that you would all say, no, I don't want
to know. But that was just my assumption,
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and I was apparently wrong. Cool, thank
you. Poll number three third question is
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about a commercially available DNA test,
which is not actually sequencing, but they
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use a panel of mutations that are now
known because we have already sequenced
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thousands and nearing a million complete
full genomes. And yeah, I was wondering
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whether you would know. So that's quite a
number three. What institutions they
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partner up with. So this DNA test is goal
23 and me. And if you don't know what it
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is, then there's also an answer option for
this one. No clue what it is. It does. And
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for the rest, yeah, I propose that they
work together with Broad Institute, that
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they work together with GlaxoSmithKline,
GSK and they got 300 million US dollars
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from them, that they work together with
general practitioners in the US, that they
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got subsidy from Google 4 million US
dollars or and Amazon 9 million US
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dollars. So, OK, let's see what you think
or how many of you don't know the text.
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And in the meantime, I'll present two
cases to you, where genetic testing would
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play a role like, for instance, in the
case of inhealthy adult, where the dad was
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diagnosed with this heart condition,
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, where the
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heart tissue gets scars and at some point
it cannot pump properly anymore. And so if
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you have one parent with that disease, you
have a 50 percent risk that you have
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inherited those genes from your parents.
So this healthy adult and their siblings
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got the offer to get tested. So the costs
are covered by the health insurance, but
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there is no cure for this condition. So
you can. Yeah, have a stricter
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surveillance, and you can get access to
early treatment if you develop symptoms,
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but yeah. Other than that, yeah, it's
still just a risk gene. So to say so if
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you know you have the gene, it doesn't
mean you will get the disease. It just
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means you have an elevated risk. So it's
really hard to grasp. And this is one case
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where at least in the Netherlands, the
life insurance would be eligible to know
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00:35:54,480 --> 00:36:01,920
if you got tested and you do have that
gene. So in the end, this person said, No,
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00:36:01,920 --> 00:36:08,720
no test, please. I will just go see a
cardiologist every now and then, have it
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checked nonetheless. But I don't want to
know if I have those things OK. A second
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00:36:14,480 --> 00:36:27,040
case? Yeah. So that's an infant delayed in
development. It was still a bit fuzzy.
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Like what should an infant be able to do
or not do at the age of one? But then the
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parents started observing seizures in the
in that case, it was absences, so it was
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00:36:44,480 --> 00:36:53,040
not cramping, but just very absent. So
eventually, they got access to tests,
285
00:36:53,040 --> 00:36:59,840
genetic tests where distinct genes were
analyzed. Nothing was found. Then panels
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of genes with increasing size and nothing
was found. And then the whole genome
287
00:37:05,360 --> 00:37:13,520
sequencing was done. And then you always
have to compare to the parents. And
288
00:37:13,520 --> 00:37:22,400
essentially, parents and child who trust
that and the child had a mutation in a
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00:37:22,400 --> 00:37:29,680
gene where the parents had nothing and it
was just the very rare X-linked mutation.
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And eventually they now know what is going
on, which was only due to the possibility
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of whole genome sequencing. And in the
end, the parents also said, Yes, I want to
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00:37:47,360 --> 00:37:53,040
know what else is found in this whole
genome sequencing. So that isn't actually
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case free, where one of the parents is the
carrier of a mutation in a in a protein,
294
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that when it's faulty or when you get a
faulty version from both parents, then you
295
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will develop this condition. Cystic
fibrosis. So that is really good to know
296
00:38:20,640 --> 00:38:26,800
when you are a carrier of this and also
your future kids can get tested to see
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00:38:26,800 --> 00:38:35,440
whether they got this faulty version
from you. So let's have a look at the poll
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number three. This is here. So the DNA
test 23 and me. Let's see where's the. I
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have no clue what this test is. So this is
just a four. OK, so not that many people
300
00:38:57,680 --> 00:39:07,840
voted for this one. Twenty nine votes. Oh,
well, actually. Twenty nine votes. And
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00:39:07,840 --> 00:39:20,080
then what you thought it would do. So
you'll have here, you approve of it,
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00:39:20,080 --> 00:39:25,200
working in conjunction with general
practitioners in the U.S., which is not
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00:39:25,200 --> 00:39:32,400
true. Sorry. Yes, it did get subsidy from
Google, 4 million US dollars in the
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00:39:32,400 --> 00:39:43,840
very beginning. No, no, no. Sanger
sequencing Yes. GSK 300 million. They want
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00:39:43,840 --> 00:39:52,800
to use their data to find new drug
targets. And I also made this one up. So
306
00:39:52,800 --> 00:40:00,560
Amazon did not give any money to 23 and
me, but you can order through Amazon. So
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00:40:00,560 --> 00:40:13,600
that's possible. OK, thank you. And I'll
think I will wrap up after just presenting
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this problem here quickly. So breast
cancer is one of the pioneering fields of
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genetic testing. So you have five
commercially available tests that can tell
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you what type you have, what treatment
options would be best for you and what
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your prognosis is. So you really need a
well-informed team of doctors if you want
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00:40:42,480 --> 00:40:51,040
to make use of this. OK, I'll skip a few
slides. Mean, validation is important.
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Takes a lot of time. And I think in the
future, it's not only going to be a whole
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genome sequencing, but there will be a lot
more to it, like the immune system and
315
00:41:03,280 --> 00:41:10,114
your gut microbiome and everything, which
is in there is also, of course, influenced
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00:41:10,114 --> 00:41:16,899
by outside factors what you eat, how much
sunlight you get, how much you move. So
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00:41:16,899 --> 00:41:23,645
this is also already available, this data
from your smart watch, for example. So I
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think in the end, if we get to
personalized medicine, this will also play
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a role. And to recap, if you sequenced the
whole genome, this is not the same as
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ordering any tests online, where you also
might run into data security issues with
321
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tests like 23 and me. And that's also not
the same a deceases signature. And then, yeah,
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00:41:52,326 --> 00:41:59,358
if you have a new cool diagnostic
signature that is published, it might
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still take a long time and couple of
validation studies before it actually
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enters the everyday clinic and you get it
reimbursed from your health insurance. And
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for this, it also needs very well trained
physicians and informed patient and
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family. I think there's no way in stopping
this. But that's just my take. So we will
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00:42:27,240 --> 00:42:35,105
see a lot more from the molecular side of
things in the future, and these are also
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to be retrieved online. So everything all
the tests that are registered also you can
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filter for countries, for Germany, for
example. And then you see even which
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university clinic offers which kind of
testing. And if you ever hear the term
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liquid biopsy, that's usually a black
sample where, yeah, all kinds of things
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are measured, so you have DNA in there,
but you also have metabolites in there,
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00:43:09,200 --> 00:43:15,640
you can have little fragments of cancer
cells and cancer derived DNA. So this is
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something that's coming forward more and
more that you just need a blood draw. And
335
00:43:21,884 --> 00:43:29,367
then, yeah, you have a lot of insight, not
only the whole genome, but even more RNA
336
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sequencing data, for example. So thank you
very much for inviting me, for listening,
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and I'm happy to take your questions now.
Herald: It's again, the social media
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hashtags on Mastodone and Twitter
RC3ChaosZone without a dash and then on
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00:43:55,040 --> 00:44:01,030
IRC unchecked, and the channel is RC3
with a dash. Chaos Zone.
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Lisette: Do we already have any specific
questions?
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Many think people would like to know.
Herald: And targeted gene modification
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with CRISPR and Cas9 is not even allowed
on plants and animals in the EU. Do you
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think there will ever be gene therapy for
humans?
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Lisette: There was gene therapy. So, for
example. I'm not sure whether it was a
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typo, low key a or an immune defect where
they tried to cure children with gene
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therapy, so there were clinical trials,
but something went horribly wrong, and I
347
00:44:50,282 --> 00:45:01,040
think actually one of the children
suffered so much from how they inserted
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the gene that it developed a type of
cancer. But I'm still hesitant to say that
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this is the end of gene therapy. So it has
potential in very severe cases where
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there's no other option. But yes, it's
also true that we don't really know what
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we're doing at the moment. So there's a
lot more research needed to make sure that
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there's no off target effects if you cut
out a gene and put in a new sequence. So,
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00:45:38,000 --> 00:45:45,280
yeah, no, I don't think we can guarantee
that as of yet, but it's it's not
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unthinkable.
Herald: All right. Huh, interesting.
355
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Sounds like the technology isn't there yet
for a couple of years or decades.
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Lisette: Oh, well, I think the technology
is there, it's just not secure enough.
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Herald: All right. I see.
Lisette: So, yeah, it's done in the lab
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00:46:08,280 --> 00:46:14,788
big time, but then we don't usually use
humans. Only a cell line or yeah.
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Something that is easy to control.
Herald: All right. Um, and then a dynamic
360
00:46:23,201 --> 00:46:31,423
methods for tests, for example, for
diseases such as COVID, our target
361
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tests, for example, the PCR test. Do you
think now the testing for infections might
362
00:46:41,440 --> 00:46:46,400
shift to be more exploratory approaches,
for example, through sequencing instead of
363
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targeted PCR?
Lisette: Yeah, that depends if you have a
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suspicion that the infection has reached
the bloodstream and you're close to
365
00:47:05,612 --> 00:47:11,851
sepsis, then it might be your last resort
to make a hole. Yeah. Just sequence
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everything that is in the blood, but then
you need to be, of course, aware that the
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majority will be human, so you need to
filter out a lot. And then what is left,
368
00:47:23,059 --> 00:47:29,451
you might be able to map to a certain
microbe genomes, which are also pretty
369
00:47:29,451 --> 00:47:38,286
well annotated. So I'm not sure about
nasal swabs or something like that, where
370
00:47:38,286 --> 00:47:46,965
you can find out which flu you have
received. So that doesn't really make too
371
00:47:46,965 --> 00:47:54,277
much sense to me unless you have a good
treatment options. But for example,
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tuberculosis is one disease where if you
do sequence the germs now more and more
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because a lot of strains of these bacteria
have multiple antibiotic resistances.
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And then if you start treating with the
wrong antibiotics, you are really screwed.
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00:48:17,640 --> 00:48:24,526
So there, yeah, it's already well-
established that the university clinics at
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least sequenced the strains before the
patient gets treatment.
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00:48:29,366 --> 00:48:37,520
Herald: Interesting, yes. Sounds very
cool. All right. Thank you so much,
378
00:48:37,520 --> 00:48:42,080
Lisette. Very inspiring.
Lisette: You are welcome.It was a
379
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pleasure. I hope I could convey the
message. Just be aware of, yeah, your
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genes and your data. So yeah, that's
that's just there's a lot of potential in
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there. But of course, we shouldn't be. We
should not be careless.
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Herald: So, yes, definitely.
Lisette: That's all from my side. Thank
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00:49:04,800 --> 00:49:09,020
you.
Herald: Thank you so much.
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