0:00:01.110,0:00:04.159
How does a sea snail catch a fish?

0:00:04.183,0:00:06.706
I mean, it's a snail, so it's slow,

0:00:06.730,0:00:09.645
and the fish is not.

0:00:10.110,0:00:12.149
But yet, this happens.

0:00:12.817,0:00:15.419
Hidden under the sand is a cone snail.

0:00:15.443,0:00:18.230
And that orange thing you see[br]is kind of like a tongue.

0:00:18.254,0:00:20.071
We call it a proboscis.

0:00:20.095,0:00:24.975
It uses that to track and subdue[br]this unsuspecting fish.

0:00:26.046,0:00:28.022
In this predator-prey interaction,

0:00:28.046,0:00:31.395
these are clearly not[br]your garden variety escargots.

0:00:31.419,0:00:34.482
These are assassins of the sea.

0:00:35.102,0:00:38.045
And their weapon of choice is venom.

0:00:38.069,0:00:42.332
Venom, like the venom you find[br]in venomous snakes and scorpions,

0:00:42.356,0:00:46.935
these sea snails, they use their venom[br]to subdue fish, worms

0:00:46.959,0:00:48.240
and other snails.

0:00:48.264,0:00:49.716
And the venom of these snails,

0:00:49.740,0:00:50.904
it's not just one thing,

0:00:50.928,0:00:54.577
it's actually a cocktail[br]of toxic molecules

0:00:54.601,0:00:59.132
that are packaged and delivered[br]through a false tooth called a radula.

0:00:59.156,0:01:02.133
You can think of the radulas[br]as hypodermic needles.

0:01:02.157,0:01:03.323
Now, no need to worry,

0:01:03.347,0:01:05.599
these snails are practicing[br]good needle habits,

0:01:05.623,0:01:08.122
because each radula is only used once.

0:01:08.146,0:01:11.249
Now from your own knowledge[br]about venomous organisms,

0:01:11.273,0:01:15.151
and the keep-you-up-at-night[br]fish-killing video that I just showed you,

0:01:15.175,0:01:18.944
you might think that venom[br]is dangerous and all bad.

0:01:18.968,0:01:20.865
Well, yes and no.

0:01:20.889,0:01:22.815
A more accurate way of thinking of venom

0:01:22.839,0:01:27.426
is to think of it as both[br]a supervillain and a superhero.

0:01:27.450,0:01:30.966
In my lab, we study the evolution[br]of venom in these sea snails

0:01:30.990,0:01:32.514
as a force for good.

0:01:32.538,0:01:34.093
Sounds like a stretch,

0:01:34.117,0:01:35.712
or maybe even snake oil,

0:01:35.736,0:01:36.909
but actually,

0:01:36.933,0:01:39.688
while there are snakes involved,[br]the product is legit.

0:01:39.712,0:01:42.156
One reason the venom product[br]is so successful

0:01:42.180,0:01:47.337
is that it transforms a physical warfare[br]into a biochemical one.

0:01:47.361,0:01:51.535
Where usually the predator-prey[br]interaction is one of brute force,

0:01:51.559,0:01:53.736
venom takes it to a molecular scale.

0:01:53.760,0:01:55.879
And it's not size that matters,

0:01:55.903,0:01:58.006
but the mixture of your venom arsenal.

0:01:58.030,0:02:00.561
The chemistry of the toxins[br]in your arsenal

0:02:00.585,0:02:04.030
is what's going to enable David[br]to conquer Goliath.

0:02:04.054,0:02:07.411
And in our scenario,[br]David is clearly the snail.

0:02:07.435,0:02:10.578
Another feature of venom[br]that makes it so successful

0:02:10.602,0:02:14.836
is that the toxins work[br]with the precision of a Swiss Army knife.

0:02:14.860,0:02:16.059
And so these toxins,

0:02:16.083,0:02:19.875
they come for strongholds[br]that help an organism to function.

0:02:19.899,0:02:23.434
So they target blood, brain and membranes.

0:02:23.458,0:02:26.037
Whether it's snail venom or snake venom,

0:02:26.061,0:02:28.537
they each have components[br]that can do things

0:02:28.561,0:02:30.593
like cause your blood to clot,

0:02:30.617,0:02:32.403
what we call "hemotoxic."

0:02:32.427,0:02:36.467
Or they cause neurons in your brains[br]to not function normally,

0:02:36.491,0:02:37.951
what we call "neurotoxic."

0:02:37.975,0:02:42.411
Or they have toxins that will poke holes[br]into the membranes of your cells,

0:02:42.435,0:02:45.708
causing them to rupture[br]and, basically, explode,

0:02:45.732,0:02:47.439
what we call "cytotoxic."

0:02:47.463,0:02:49.693
Cellular explosion, people.

0:02:49.717,0:02:52.653
Now, if that is not all powerful[br]and all present,

0:02:52.677,0:02:53.944
nothing is.

0:02:53.968,0:02:55.564
Now a little about me,

0:02:55.588,0:02:57.999
and why I'm so obsessed with venom.

0:02:58.579,0:03:00.347
I grew up in New York City

0:03:00.371,0:03:03.387
with forced access[br]to the Natural History Museum.

0:03:03.411,0:03:04.799
I say "forced access,"

0:03:04.823,0:03:06.289
because I'm one of five kids,

0:03:06.313,0:03:09.894
and my parents used museums[br]as a form of childcare.

0:03:10.253,0:03:11.452
There were two rules:

0:03:11.476,0:03:12.737
Don't lose anybody

0:03:12.761,0:03:15.087
and meet Mom and Dad[br]at the African elephants

0:03:15.111,0:03:17.483
at 5:30, when the museum closes.

0:03:17.507,0:03:23.138
Those totally unsupervised days[br]running through the halls of the museum

0:03:23.162,0:03:25.974
were full of adventure and exploration.

0:03:25.998,0:03:28.569
And that's how I feel[br]when I'm studying venom.

0:03:28.593,0:03:30.307
It's a scientific adventure.

0:03:30.331,0:03:35.587
We're boldly exploring this entity[br]that connects nature and humanity.

0:03:35.611,0:03:37.817
Another reason[br]that I'm obsessed with venom

0:03:37.841,0:03:39.585
is because of its duality.

0:03:39.609,0:03:43.252
When you inject the components[br]of a venom arsenal into an organism,

0:03:43.276,0:03:45.633
it can kill or it can cure.

0:03:45.657,0:03:48.299
At a molecular level,[br]several things can happen.

0:03:48.601,0:03:51.704
You saw one thing, paralysis in the fish.

0:03:52.134,0:03:54.666
Now that was happening[br]because the toxins in the venom

0:03:54.690,0:03:57.927
were attacking how the fish's cells[br]communicate with each other,

0:03:57.951,0:03:59.982
preventing it from swimming away.

0:04:00.006,0:04:03.334
Are there other things[br]that I would like to use venom to attack?

0:04:03.760,0:04:04.926
For sure.

0:04:04.950,0:04:06.768
And one of those is cancer.

0:04:06.792,0:04:08.848
Cancer tumors are cells.

0:04:08.872,0:04:10.031
And like all cells,

0:04:10.055,0:04:13.228
they communicate with themselves[br]and their environment around them.

0:04:13.252,0:04:15.434
So we would like to find venom components

0:04:15.458,0:04:19.354
that are very good at disrupting[br]how the tumor cells communicate.

0:04:19.378,0:04:24.188
Similar to how the venom disrupted[br]how the fish cells communicated

0:04:24.212,0:04:26.291
and the fish couldn't swim away.

0:04:26.315,0:04:29.654
In my lab, we study cancer[br]as a channelopathy.

0:04:29.998,0:04:33.405
What this means is, basically,[br]we're looking for venom components

0:04:33.429,0:04:37.231
that will target channels[br]that are overexpressed in tumor cells

0:04:37.255,0:04:38.540
versus normal cells.

0:04:38.564,0:04:41.085
The cancer that we're most[br]focused on right now

0:04:41.109,0:04:42.442
is liver cancer.

0:04:42.466,0:04:44.808
And that's because since the 1980s,

0:04:44.832,0:04:47.537
the death rate of liver[br]cancer has doubled,

0:04:47.561,0:04:49.942
and it's an emerging threat in the US.

0:04:49.966,0:04:52.260
In a screen in which we had cervical,

0:04:52.284,0:04:55.483
neuroblastoma, prostate[br]and liver cancer cells,

0:04:55.507,0:04:57.998
we found a compound from a terebrid snail

0:04:58.022,0:05:01.315
that seems to attack liver cancer cells,

0:05:01.339,0:05:05.022
and only liver cancer cells,[br]and none of the others that were tested.

0:05:05.046,0:05:08.490
And then, when we took this compound[br]and we injected it into mouse models

0:05:08.514,0:05:10.507
that were expressing liver cancer cells,

0:05:10.531,0:05:13.766
it significantly inhibited[br]the growth of the tumors.

0:05:13.790,0:05:16.006
We're not quite sure how this works yet,

0:05:16.030,0:05:17.895
we're still investigating the mechanism

0:05:17.919,0:05:20.673
and how we can make[br]this compound more effective,

0:05:20.697,0:05:22.640
so you can't rush out to the pharmacy

0:05:22.664,0:05:26.847
and order up a killer snail[br]liver-cancer therapy treatment.

0:05:26.871,0:05:28.109
Not yet.

0:05:28.450,0:05:30.283
Basically, what we think is happening

0:05:30.307,0:05:33.823
is that the compound is blocking[br]a specific channel,

0:05:33.847,0:05:36.609
prohibiting the transmission[br]of a specific chemical

0:05:36.633,0:05:38.846
that leads to downstream signaling

0:05:38.870,0:05:43.132
that enables the tumor to multiply[br]and draw blood to itself.

0:05:43.156,0:05:46.133
What we're doing in studying[br]the components of venom

0:05:46.157,0:05:48.848
to find treatments for human[br]diseases and disorders,

0:05:48.872,0:05:50.156
is not new,

0:05:50.180,0:05:52.950
it's what we call natural[br]products drug discovery,

0:05:52.974,0:05:54.784
and it's been happening for centuries,

0:05:54.808,0:05:56.990
and in cultures all over the world.

0:05:57.014,0:05:59.474
Venoms are not only giving us[br]cool new compounds,

0:05:59.498,0:06:02.284
but they're also giving us[br]new ways of thinking

0:06:02.308,0:06:05.185
about how we treat[br]human diseases and disorders.

0:06:05.521,0:06:07.267
And I'll give you three examples.

0:06:07.291,0:06:10.117
The first is from killer[br]snails, of course.

0:06:10.141,0:06:14.037
And so the first drug from these snails[br]that is on the market

0:06:14.061,0:06:16.863
is called ziconotide, or Prialt,

0:06:16.887,0:06:20.989
and it's used to treat chronic pain[br]in HIV and cancer patients.

0:06:21.013,0:06:23.790
Prialt is a nonaddictive pain therapy.

0:06:24.227,0:06:28.185
Three magic words when you think[br]about how we're treating pain currently.

0:06:28.209,0:06:31.550
We're using things that have[br]a huge cost of addiction.

0:06:31.574,0:06:32.743
So think of morphine

0:06:32.767,0:06:35.609
or think of any of your favorite[br]opioid out there.

0:06:35.633,0:06:36.895
What the snails have done

0:06:36.919,0:06:41.332
is they've shown us a way to treat pain[br]without the addiction,

0:06:41.356,0:06:42.506
which is huge.

0:06:43.055,0:06:46.364
The next example comes[br]from the Brazilian pit viper.

0:06:46.388,0:06:49.776
From these snakes, we've derived[br]a compound called captopril.

0:06:49.800,0:06:52.879
Captopril is used to treat[br]high blood pressure,

0:06:52.903,0:06:55.403
and captopril is a breakthrough drug.

0:06:55.427,0:06:57.577
But not only in and of itself,

0:06:57.601,0:07:00.529
but because it advanced[br]a whole class of drugs,

0:07:00.553,0:07:02.609
what we know as ACE inhibitors,

0:07:02.633,0:07:06.133
which are the most commonly [prescribed][br]for treating hypertension

0:07:06.157,0:07:07.585
and heart failure.

0:07:07.609,0:07:11.387
The last example is from the Gila monster.

0:07:11.411,0:07:15.332
And this is a really exciting example[br]of understanding the ecology

0:07:15.356,0:07:16.705
of these organisms,

0:07:16.729,0:07:19.037
and pairing it with efficient[br]drug discovery.

0:07:19.061,0:07:21.125
And Gila monsters are binge eaters.

0:07:21.149,0:07:23.537
So when they bite into a large meal,

0:07:23.561,0:07:26.955
they release things in their venom[br]that lower blood sugar.

0:07:26.979,0:07:30.892
So what's the drug that you think[br]we found from the Gila monster?

0:07:30.916,0:07:35.116
A compound that is used to lower[br]the blood sugar in diabetic patients.

0:07:35.140,0:07:37.188
Now these are three marvelous examples,

0:07:37.212,0:07:39.260
but we've just scratched the surface.

0:07:39.284,0:07:42.077
There's so much more venom[br]out there for us to study.

0:07:42.101,0:07:45.673
In fact, we think that 15 percent[br]of all the animals on the planet

0:07:45.697,0:07:46.880
are venomous.

0:07:46.904,0:07:48.594
And I think this is a low estimate,

0:07:48.618,0:07:51.959
given the fact that we haven't surveyed[br]all the animals on the planet.

0:07:51.983,0:07:54.630
But nature seems to have found[br]something that she likes,

0:07:54.654,0:07:57.853
and she's repeated it[br]over and over and over again,

0:07:57.877,0:08:00.615
leading to the vast array of animals[br]that we see around us

0:08:00.639,0:08:02.576
and all throughout the tree of life.

0:08:02.600,0:08:06.156
So whether we're talking[br]about my fave, killer snails,

0:08:06.180,0:08:07.449
or jellyfish,

0:08:07.473,0:08:10.228
or the larvae of butterflies and moths,

0:08:10.252,0:08:12.863
or platypus or slow lorises,

0:08:12.887,0:08:15.887
whether by sea, land or air,

0:08:15.911,0:08:18.633
you're sure to encounter[br]a venomous creature.

0:08:18.657,0:08:20.069
Remember when I told you

0:08:20.093,0:08:24.188
that venom can be both[br]a superhero and a supervillain,

0:08:24.212,0:08:25.768
and you doubted me?

0:08:25.792,0:08:26.974
Mhm.

0:08:26.998,0:08:30.086
We're in a race to harness[br]all of this venom goodness

0:08:30.110,0:08:33.110
before we lose the vast majority[br]of animals on our planet.

0:08:33.134,0:08:34.840
It's a holistic process.

0:08:34.864,0:08:39.426
You can't have the therapeutic treatments[br]without having the animals.

0:08:39.450,0:08:41.085
And you can't have the animals

0:08:41.109,0:08:42.856
without having their ecosystems.

0:08:42.880,0:08:44.539
So for me and the snails,

0:08:44.563,0:08:47.318
what it means is[br]we have to save the oceans.

0:08:47.342,0:08:49.739
And because venomous animals[br]are found everywhere,

0:08:49.763,0:08:51.778
we basically have to save the planet.

0:08:51.802,0:08:53.548
So do it for the venomous animals,

0:08:53.572,0:08:55.491
if you don't want to do it for yourself.

0:08:55.515,0:08:56.682
And who knows,

0:08:56.706,0:08:59.992
some day, snail venom[br]might just save your life.

0:09:00.952,0:09:02.102
Thank you.