[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:01.02,0:00:02.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Paleontology,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:02.78,0:00:05.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a science geared towards small children,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:05.64,0:00:08.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,focused on digging up dinosaurs
Dialogue: 0,0:00:08.56,0:00:10.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while sporting a "Jurassic Park" costume.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:11.19,0:00:13.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Skulls are popped out of the ground
Dialogue: 0,0:00:13.26,0:00:15.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and put on display for public gawking.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:16.20,0:00:20.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The relevance of this, beyond clickbait,\Ncoloring books and monster movies
Dialogue: 0,0:00:20.98,0:00:22.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is unknown.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.79,0:00:23.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,No ...
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.36,0:00:25.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wait.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:26.80,0:00:29.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's not paleontology at all.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:29.82,0:00:33.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Paleontology is nothing less\Nthan the study of past life.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:33.99,0:00:35.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All past life.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:35.57,0:00:38.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From ancestors to alien forms.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:38.69,0:00:42.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It involves fundamental questions\Nlike "Who are we?"
Dialogue: 0,0:00:42.36,0:00:44.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And "How did we get here?" --
Dialogue: 0,0:00:44.07,0:00:46.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,using the broadest possible\Ndefinition of "we":
Dialogue: 0,0:00:47.06,0:00:48.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,life itself.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.71,0:00:52.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Dinosaurs, a category of birds,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:52.79,0:00:54.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are just a small percentage of that.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:54.98,0:00:56.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.21,0:00:59.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yet they get the most media attention.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:59.21,0:01:02.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,[The incredible diversity of ancient life,\NDinosaurs, Paleontology]
Dialogue: 0,0:01:02.43,0:01:05.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a very accurate meme;\NI didn't even make this one.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:05.28,0:01:06.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is just the truth.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:06.91,0:01:12.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Anyway, most of us paleontologists\Nconsider dinosaurs to be a gateway drug.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:12.92,0:01:15.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There is so much cooler stuff\Nin the fossil record,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:15.88,0:01:18.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we know so much about it.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.25,0:01:21.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Let's go on a brief, dinosaur-free tour
Dialogue: 0,0:01:21.27,0:01:23.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the last four billion years.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:23.51,0:01:24.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:01:24.81,0:01:26.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,First up, genetic material.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:26.74,0:01:29.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Viruses, basically,\Nstarted producing proteins
Dialogue: 0,0:01:29.91,0:01:32.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and wrecking their environment.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:32.51,0:01:35.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Earth was infected with life.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:35.83,0:01:39.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some of these new bacteria\Nlearned how to eat sunshine,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:39.75,0:01:41.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,producing oxygen,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.28,0:01:43.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,pulling in carbon from the air
Dialogue: 0,0:01:43.27,0:01:47.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and destroying the iron food\Nof other microbes
Dialogue: 0,0:01:47.10,0:01:48.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by turning it into rust.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:48.79,0:01:51.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This went on for billions of years.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.58,0:01:54.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some bacteria consumed other bacteria,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:54.75,0:01:58.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,gaining their power\Nto turn oxygen into energy,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:58.45,0:02:01.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,becoming the precursors\Nof animals and plants.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:01.71,0:02:04.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But as a result,\Nthere were climate shocks,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:04.52,0:02:07.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from hot to cold and back again,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.03,0:02:11.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which ended up turning the Earth\Ninto a snowball covered with glaciers.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:11.54,0:02:14.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The technical term for this time period\Nis "Snowball Earth."
Dialogue: 0,0:02:15.43,0:02:18.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:02:18.31,0:02:20.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Seven hundred, eight hundred\Nmillion years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:20.75,0:02:23.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Anyway, microbes banded together,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:23.36,0:02:25.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,creating multicellular life.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:25.70,0:02:27.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Six hundred million years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:27.64,0:02:31.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,geometric colonies appeared,\Nsucking microbes from the water.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:31.74,0:02:35.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These were soon replaced\Nby the ancestors of modern animals.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:36.08,0:02:38.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Cambrian explosion.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.47,0:02:41.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Lobster relatives ate other animals,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:41.66,0:02:44.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,capturing them using their grasping arms.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:44.75,0:02:49.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Armored wriggling clam worms\Ncrawled across the seafloor and into it,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.48,0:02:51.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,creating new ecosystems.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:52.10,0:02:56.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our tadpole-like ancestors\Nflitted along ancient coastlines,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:56.43,0:02:59.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while their eel-like relatives\Nwith gnashing throat teeth
Dialogue: 0,0:03:00.02,0:03:04.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,swam above the ice-cream cone corals\Nof the first reefs,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:04.42,0:03:06.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,dodging school-bus-sized krakens
Dialogue: 0,0:03:06.48,0:03:08.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and hungry sea scorpions.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:09.14,0:03:11.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Plant fungus came onto land.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:11.70,0:03:15.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then the glaciers returned,\Nkilling pretty much everything.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:15.64,0:03:18.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But mass extinctions open opportunities.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:18.40,0:03:20.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Jawless fishes invaded the ocean,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:20.82,0:03:24.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sporting points, prongs,\Nand finally, fins.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:24.55,0:03:29.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Spiders, scorpions, snails\Nand worms came onto land.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:29.65,0:03:33.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Somewhere around China,\Na fish developed jaws,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:33.14,0:03:35.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and its descendants drove jawless fishes,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:35.79,0:03:37.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sea scorpions and branching plankton
Dialogue: 0,0:03:37.92,0:03:39.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to extinction.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:39.56,0:03:40.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some of these fishes,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:40.78,0:03:42.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which had arm bones in their fins,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:42.70,0:03:44.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sprouted fingers,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:44.16,0:03:46.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,seven or eight per flipper.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:47.01,0:03:49.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On land, plants became trees,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:49.28,0:03:50.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,growing massive
Dialogue: 0,0:03:50.68,0:03:54.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or spreading their spores\Nonly once before dying.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:54.62,0:03:56.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then the glaciers came back again,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:56.98,0:03:59.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it was mass extinction number two.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:59.37,0:04:02.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was the age of weird fishes\Nand plated sea lilies.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:03.02,0:04:04.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sharks with wings.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.70,0:04:06.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sharks with buzz saw jaws.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:06.63,0:04:09.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sharks with fins covered in tiny teeth.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:09.32,0:04:11.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sharks with crushing tooth plates.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:11.51,0:04:14.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Bony fishes that looked like\Nmodern angelfish and eels
Dialogue: 0,0:04:14.90,0:04:16.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for the first time.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.65,0:04:18.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Wetlands developed,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:18.04,0:04:21.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,sporting ten-foot-long millipedes\Nand giant dragon flies.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:21.91,0:04:25.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These spread across the supercontinent\Nof Pangaea and died,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:25.50,0:04:27.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,creating coal,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:27.03,0:04:30.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,leading to a 100-million-year Ice Age.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:30.72,0:04:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Finally, vertebrates made it onto land\Non a permanent basis,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.03,0:04:37.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,leading to alligator-like amphibians
Dialogue: 0,0:04:37.38,0:04:40.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and saber-toothed protomammals.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:40.37,0:04:44.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then, volcanoes erupted\Nall over Siberia,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:44.07,0:04:45.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,everything almost died
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.28,0:04:47.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it was mass extinction number three.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:47.96,0:04:49.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.11,0:04:50.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The day life nearly died.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:51.31,0:04:55.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A single, lonely tusked mammal\Nsurvived and thrived,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:56.43,0:04:59.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it was soon replaced\Nby galloping crocodiles.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:59.62,0:05:02.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the ocean, marine reptiles,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:02.38,0:05:06.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,giant rafts made of the living\Nrelatives of sea urchins
Dialogue: 0,0:05:06.85,0:05:11.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and armored squids, ammonoids,\Nof every kind and form.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.35,0:05:14.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then, Pangaea started to split apart,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:14.78,0:05:16.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,forming a sea of lava
Dialogue: 0,0:05:16.50,0:05:19.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that would one day become\Nthe Atlantic Ocean,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:19.28,0:05:21.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,spewing toxic gas into the atmosphere
Dialogue: 0,0:05:21.72,0:05:23.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mass extinction number four.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:24.20,0:05:25.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:05:25.45,0:05:27.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yeah, there's actually\Na lot more than these five,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:27.82,0:05:29.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these are the big ones.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:29.05,0:05:31.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:05:32.66,0:05:36.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, finally, there were\Nwhale-sized fishes,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:36.81,0:05:38.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and modern fishes mobbed corals,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.90,0:05:44.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made gigantic by using\Ntheir captured algae to eat sunshine.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:44.27,0:05:48.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Crabs, stingrays and other fishes\Nwith crushing teeth appeared,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:48.72,0:05:49.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,smashing shells
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.96,0:05:53.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and leading to an arms race\Nbetween predators and prey.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:53.49,0:05:56.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There was an explosion\Nof marine biodiversity.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.24,0:05:59.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Mammals climbed trees, flew
Dialogue: 0,0:05:59.46,0:06:03.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and did a lot of other things\Nthat are seemingly sort of modern.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:04.24,0:06:08.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were feeding on the first flowers\Npollinated by the first bees.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.41,0:06:12.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were ecological revolutions\Non land and at sea,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:12.24,0:06:14.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,leading to the modern world.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:14.43,0:06:17.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Except that an asteroid hit Mexico,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.51,0:06:21.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then that triggered volcanoes\Non the other side of the world in India,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:21.73,0:06:24.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and everything almost died again.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:24.12,0:06:25.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.61,0:06:30.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But -- there's always a but,\Nbecause we're still here --
Dialogue: 0,0:06:30.04,0:06:32.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,mammals arose from the ashes,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:32.44,0:06:36.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,became small under extreme heat\Nand then ever larger.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:36.24,0:06:38.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There were palm trees\Nand snakes in the Arctic.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:38.99,0:06:42.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Predatory deer dogs frolicked\Nalong ancient rivers,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:42.59,0:06:45.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while their relatives\Nreturned to the ocean
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.07,0:06:48.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to become the first otter-like whales.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:48.27,0:06:51.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not hyenas and other sort of carnivores
Dialogue: 0,0:06:51.75,0:06:54.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were chased off by giant\Nlong-necked rhinos.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:54.86,0:06:57.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Everything at this point\Nseems kind of familiar
Dialogue: 0,0:06:57.70,0:06:58.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but not really.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:59.27,0:07:02.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In Antarctica, an ice age started,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:02.57,0:07:06.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,forming the first permanent polar ice cap\Nin two hundred million years.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:07.27,0:07:09.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This dried out the rest of the world,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:09.58,0:07:13.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it allowed the rise of grasses,\Nof rodents, of cats.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:13.100,0:07:15.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Somewhere in Africa,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:15.53,0:07:18.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,an ape started walking\Nacross the new savannah.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:19.00,0:07:21.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Oh, and there were giant\Nsaber-toothed salmon,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:21.68,0:07:23.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I just have to mention that.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:23.18,0:07:25.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:07:26.22,0:07:29.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, we know all of this happened
Dialogue: 0,0:07:29.33,0:07:30.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so much more.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:30.76,0:07:31.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.94,0:07:33.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:33.16,0:07:35.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Paleontology is a thriving science
Dialogue: 0,0:07:35.84,0:07:40.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at the intersection of multiple\Nother fields and technologies.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:40.40,0:07:43.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There is no bigger data\Nthan the fossil record,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.15,0:07:45.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we mine every bit of it.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:45.14,0:07:46.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We use CAT scans,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:46.45,0:07:47.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we use isotopes,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:47.83,0:07:49.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we use genomes,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:49.37,0:07:50.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we use robots,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:50.72,0:07:52.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we use mathematical simulations
Dialogue: 0,0:07:52.81,0:07:55.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and all kinds of analytics.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.17,0:07:58.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We maximize all of it\Nso that we can understand the past
Dialogue: 0,0:07:58.99,0:08:00.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and how evolution works.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:01.05,0:08:04.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It also lets us make\Npredictions for the future.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:04.07,0:08:06.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What will happen after the next\Nmass extinction?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:06.85,0:08:08.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What weird things will show up?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:09.31,0:08:11.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Will mammals get smaller again?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.71,0:08:13.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Will there even be mammals?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.83,0:08:16.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In sum,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:16.38,0:08:19.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we have learned a lot about dinosaurs.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:20.24,0:08:21.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there's so much left to learn
Dialogue: 0,0:08:21.86,0:08:26.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from the other 99.9 percent of things\Nthat have ever lived.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.43,0:08:28.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's paleontology.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:28.99,0:08:30.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:30.21,0:08:35.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause and cheers)