0:00:12.163,0:00:16.485
First of all, colour doesn't exist[br]in the outside world:

0:00:17.266,0:00:20.394
it exists only in the minds[br]of animals with eyes.

0:00:20.426,0:00:22.114
And we still don't fully understand

0:00:22.114,0:00:24.664
how our images of the world[br]are put together.

0:00:25.264,0:00:26.954
But that's not an issue for nature.

0:00:26.954,0:00:29.361
Nature doesn't need[br]to understand how things work;

0:00:29.361,0:00:33.962
it just gets on with inventing things[br]through trial and error, random mutations.

0:00:35.379,0:00:38.578
Now I'm going to talk about[br]how I came across these two facts,

0:00:38.598,0:00:41.550
and how they led me[br]to a subject called biomimetics,

0:00:41.550,0:00:43.550
which is learning from nature,

0:00:44.020,0:00:48.112
taking inspiration from nature[br]to effect our commercial products.

0:00:48.512,0:00:50.956
This all began about 20 years ago,

0:00:50.956,0:00:55.751
working on a group of animals called[br]seed shrimps or ostracod crustaceans.

0:00:57.783,0:01:00.835
They are fairly obscure animals,[br]about the size of a tomato seed,

0:01:00.835,0:01:04.158
not very well known, but very, very[br]common in Australian waters.

0:01:04.340,0:01:08.168
They're well known to produce[br]bioluminescent light.

0:01:08.261,0:01:11.277
They light up in the dark[br]when there's no light to reflect,

0:01:11.277,0:01:14.052
and you can find them[br]on beaches around Sydney at night,

0:01:14.462,0:01:16.392
as you can see in this image here.

0:01:16.753,0:01:18.234
That was well known,

0:01:18.238,0:01:22.413
but I've often quoted that my research[br]began with a flash of green light,

0:01:23.154,0:01:25.397
green or blue light, and that's true.

0:01:26.257,0:01:30.553
When I was looking at some[br]preserved ostracods under a microscope,

0:01:30.553,0:01:34.028
I moved them around and started to find[br]flashes of blue and green light.

0:01:34.034,0:01:37.672
This wasn't known for ostracods,[br]so I thought, "What's going on here?"

0:01:38.240,0:01:42.606
Also, when I videoed[br]live animals during courtship,

0:01:42.606,0:01:45.440
they were using these[br]iridescent flashes of light

0:01:45.443,0:01:47.843
as a courtship display[br]to attract each other.

0:01:48.443,0:01:53.699
So, I decided to put some ostracods[br]in electron microscopes

0:01:53.704,0:01:55.139
to find out what's going on.

0:01:55.141,0:01:59.134
Here you can see[br]the images of a diffraction grating

0:01:59.134,0:02:00.525
on the surface of the hairs

0:02:00.534,0:02:03.465
that are splitting up white light[br]into its component colours.

0:02:04.524,0:02:08.317
Diffraction gratings are well known[br]in physics and in commerce.

0:02:08.317,0:02:10.726
They have a number of uses in technology.

0:02:10.906,0:02:13.706
But they weren't known[br]in ostracods or animals in general.

0:02:15.116,0:02:17.033
Now, the interesting thing here is that,

0:02:17.038,0:02:19.817
because they were being used[br]as a courtship display,

0:02:19.825,0:02:21.085
they had a function.

0:02:21.088,0:02:23.582
So they'd evolved[br]to be very, very efficient.

0:02:23.998,0:02:27.168
Nature had been working on these[br]over millions of years,

0:02:27.168,0:02:30.286
fine-tuning them to be optimal[br]at doing their job.

0:02:30.524,0:02:32.391
Now I knew what I was looking for,

0:02:32.391,0:02:35.427
I thought, "Where else[br]do diffraction gratings occur in nature?"

0:02:35.432,0:02:37.148
So I looked at all sorts of animals,

0:02:37.151,0:02:38.992
and found them in a range of things.

0:02:38.997,0:02:40.992
From worms, as you can see here,

0:02:41.001,0:02:45.169
and also on the claws[br]of, in this case, a galatheid lobster.

0:02:45.589,0:02:48.911
You can see how the colour changes[br]with change in direction.

0:02:49.124,0:02:51.595
These are the very bright,[br]metallic-looking colours

0:02:51.595,0:02:54.775
that you find also in hummingbirds[br]and beetles, for example.

0:02:56.174,0:02:59.359
These are physical structures[br]just like bones.

0:02:59.380,0:03:02.470
So I thought, "Well, I wonder[br]if it occurs in fossils too."

0:03:02.830,0:03:03.910
And in fact they did.

0:03:03.910,0:03:05.432
We started to look at fossils.

0:03:05.432,0:03:09.364
I found them[br]in 45-million-year-old beetles

0:03:09.364,0:03:12.186
that came out of the rocks[br]just looking like living beetles,

0:03:12.186,0:03:14.246
sparkling with all their metallic colours;

0:03:14.246,0:03:17.585
in 85-million-year-old ammonites[br]as you can see here.

0:03:18.455,0:03:20.503
You can also see how light is reflecting

0:03:20.503,0:03:22.633
from the different layers[br]in this reflector.

0:03:22.633,0:03:26.490
The layers, they're about 100th[br]of a hair's width in size,

0:03:26.490,0:03:29.980
really, really tiny nanostructures, even.

0:03:30.650,0:03:33.641
The oldest were the Burgess Shale fossils,

0:03:33.641,0:03:36.771
508 million years old[br]from the Cambrian period.

0:03:37.611,0:03:41.652
This got me thinking, "We can take[br]colour back this far in time,

0:03:41.886,0:03:44.027
but how far can you go here?

0:03:44.097,0:03:46.557
When did colour first begin on earth?"

0:03:46.647,0:03:50.225
That led me to search[br]for the very first eye that existed.

0:03:51.258,0:03:55.126
It turned out to be a trilobite[br]that had this very first eye,

0:03:55.126,0:03:56.521
a type that you can see here.

0:03:56.521,0:03:59.428
You can see one of the ridges[br]on one of the eyes, for example.

0:03:59.428,0:04:01.006
Really, really good eyes in fact,

0:04:01.014,0:04:03.594
they could produce image[br]just as well as we can today.

0:04:03.594,0:04:07.114
But this animal lived[br]521 million years ago.

0:04:08.945,0:04:12.588
Before that there was no vision,[br]so colour didn't matter.

0:04:13.091,0:04:16.369
There was really no such thing as colour,[br]just wavelengths of light.

0:04:16.396,0:04:18.878
I looked at the animals[br]that existed at that time.

0:04:18.878,0:04:21.946
The trilobite had really[br]armoured parts, hard parts,

0:04:21.946,0:04:24.376
and it had a very modern lifestyle.

0:04:24.388,0:04:25.547
It moved very quickly,

0:04:25.552,0:04:27.622
and it had hard parts[br]to tear animals apart.

0:04:27.626,0:04:28.856
It was a predator.

0:04:28.856,0:04:31.016
It could see animals around it.

0:04:31.153,0:04:33.942
But just before that,[br]all the animals were soft bodied,

0:04:33.942,0:04:36.222
even the predecessor of the trilobite,

0:04:36.222,0:04:39.850
and they moved around very slowly[br]on the seafloor just bumping into things.

0:04:39.850,0:04:42.424
They didn't really interact[br]with each other very well.

0:04:42.424,0:04:44.222
They did have a light sensor.

0:04:44.222,0:04:46.912
The most sophisticated[br]light sensor of the time

0:04:46.912,0:04:49.531
would have produced[br]this image of the world.

0:04:49.531,0:04:52.811
This is the best way animals[br]could have seen their environment

0:04:52.813,0:04:54.224
with such a sensor.

0:04:54.643,0:04:57.219
You can see the direction[br]where light is coming from,

0:04:57.219,0:05:00.353
so you know where up and down is[br]in the water column, for example.

0:05:00.353,0:05:04.187
But you can't find[br]a friend or foe around you.

0:05:04.187,0:05:07.219
You can't identify all the other animals[br]and see what there is.

0:05:07.334,0:05:11.235
Then perhaps the most dramatic event[br]in the history of life happened.

0:05:11.505,0:05:14.709
One of those light sensors evolved lenses.

0:05:15.309,0:05:19.022
Suddenly an image was cast[br]on the back of an eye,

0:05:19.422,0:05:21.722
the very first image on earth,

0:05:21.722,0:05:23.868
which would have looked[br]something like this.

0:05:23.868,0:05:26.003
You can see all the other[br]animals around you.

0:05:26.003,0:05:27.953
You can identify what's possibly prey.

0:05:28.362,0:05:31.465
Therefore, selection pressures,[br]evolutionary pressures,

0:05:31.465,0:05:34.945
start acting on that animal[br]to evolve swimming parts to get there,

0:05:34.945,0:05:36.673
a hard part to tear it apart,

0:05:36.673,0:05:39.153
and feed on all of those[br]soft-bodied animals,

0:05:39.153,0:05:42.703
which are essentially[br]chunks of protein waiting to be eaten.

0:05:42.773,0:05:44.973
It actually triggered[br]the Cambrian explosion,

0:05:44.973,0:05:46.217
the Big Bang in evolution,

0:05:46.220,0:05:48.364
where all animals[br]went from being soft bodied,

0:05:48.369,0:05:49.859
like worms and jellyfish,

0:05:50.193,0:05:53.677
into having the whole range of bodies[br]that you see today,

0:05:53.687,0:05:55.277
the whole range of behaviours.

0:05:55.277,0:05:57.276
Life suddenly became complex.

0:05:57.276,0:06:00.236
Vision was introduced to the world,[br]and it was here to stay.

0:06:00.516,0:06:03.588
Today, over 95% of animals have eyes,

0:06:03.588,0:06:05.965
and vision is the most powerful[br]stimulus on earth.

0:06:05.965,0:06:08.426
Everywhere you go,[br]you leave an image on a retina,

0:06:08.426,0:06:11.196
and, from then onwards,[br]animals had to be adapted

0:06:11.196,0:06:14.502
and could at any time[br]be caught by a predator.

0:06:15.042,0:06:21.023
Evolution has led to a design process

0:06:21.053,0:06:24.673
where trillions upon trillions[br]of strands of DNA are mutating,

0:06:24.693,0:06:28.733
producing endless designs[br]of new types of colours.

0:06:29.543,0:06:32.701
They've been working on this[br]over millions of years,

0:06:32.711,0:06:35.823
hundreds of millions of years[br]to produce optimal colours.

0:06:36.333,0:06:38.803
A designer in commerce[br]would be lucky to get a year

0:06:38.806,0:06:40.246
to come up with a new colour.

0:06:40.911,0:06:44.411
So, why not just go to nature[br]and see what they have to offer,

0:06:44.411,0:06:46.263
see if we can copy some of the things?

0:06:46.273,0:06:49.258
Even if we don't understand[br]how the colours are produced,

0:06:49.261,0:06:50.584
that doesn't matter,

0:06:50.591,0:06:54.413
just simply copy those nanostructures[br]that's there in nature,

0:06:54.413,0:06:56.623
then you will have the same colours.

0:06:57.193,0:07:01.334
After all, we're working[br]towards the same goal:

0:07:01.545,0:07:03.345
the effect on the eye.

0:07:03.436,0:07:05.559
So let's go to industry now and ask:

0:07:05.560,0:07:07.505
"What type of colours would you like?"

0:07:07.505,0:07:10.626
"Would you like a very bright colour[br]that lights up in the dark,

0:07:10.626,0:07:13.866
that even when there's no sunlight,[br]you can produce light?"

0:07:14.646,0:07:16.530
For example in glow sticks,

0:07:16.530,0:07:20.480
or in certain applications[br]in farmers' fields,

0:07:20.480,0:07:23.513
where, if a crop is attacked by a virus,

0:07:23.516,0:07:26.542
it lights up at night to tell the farmer[br]where the attack is.

0:07:26.542,0:07:29.669
That's exactly what we're doing[br]with bioluminescent chemicals.

0:07:30.169,0:07:34.658
Bioluminescence is where two chemicals[br]interact in the presence of oxygen

0:07:34.728,0:07:36.794
and produce light as a by-product.

0:07:36.924,0:07:38.439
It's a very efficient light.

0:07:38.439,0:07:41.049
Almost all of the energy[br]is converted into light,

0:07:41.099,0:07:44.023
very little heat, as opposed[br]to light bulbs, for example.

0:07:45.311,0:07:49.948
Bioluminescence causes the light[br]in fireflies or glow worms.

0:07:49.948,0:07:51.588
It's very common in the deep sea,

0:07:51.588,0:07:55.452
where over 90% of all animals[br]produce bioluminescent lights.

0:07:55.461,0:07:57.690
Would industry like to have[br]pigments, perhaps?

0:07:57.690,0:08:02.458
These are really common in nature,[br]for example, in this milk snake here.

0:08:02.482,0:08:06.824
There's a pigment in this case[br]that produces an orange effect.

0:08:06.824,0:08:11.786
So, what happens here[br]is the molecule is struck by white light

0:08:11.786,0:08:14.096
with all the different colours[br]or wavelengths.

0:08:14.096,0:08:17.294
Most of those wavelengths[br]are eaten up and turned into heat,

0:08:17.795,0:08:20.621
but the energy remaining[br]in those that aren't eaten up

0:08:20.621,0:08:23.535
is back-reflected or scattered out[br]into the environment,

0:08:23.535,0:08:25.393
so you see those colours.

0:08:25.523,0:08:28.576
There's another way that nature[br]can offer pigments to industry.

0:08:28.576,0:08:31.526
That's through chromatophores,[br]or colour change cells.

0:08:31.888,0:08:34.115
These are cells[br]that can expand or contract

0:08:34.115,0:08:35.712
and are filled with pigment.

0:08:35.880,0:08:37.100
When they expand,

0:08:37.100,0:08:40.179
they are large enough[br]to be seen as a pixel,

0:08:40.179,0:08:42.597
and when they contract,[br]they become invisible.

0:08:42.988,0:08:47.908
This is the way that chameleons[br]change colour, or cuttlefish or squid.

0:08:47.908,0:08:51.378
You can imagine packing red, blue[br]and green chromatophores together

0:08:51.378,0:08:55.558
and expanding and contracting those[br]to produce any colour you want to.

0:08:55.834,0:08:57.989
Now I'm working with Georgia Tech

0:08:57.989,0:09:00.768
to try to produce colour change[br]surfaces and materials,

0:09:00.768,0:09:03.458
which is great for camouflage[br]colours, for example.

0:09:03.588,0:09:07.198
We could produce fluorescent colours[br]for industry as well,

0:09:07.198,0:09:08.350
plenty of those around,

0:09:08.350,0:09:11.740
particularly in parrots,[br]Australian parrots in particular.

0:09:12.860,0:09:15.905
These are head feathers[br]from the sulphur-crested cockatoo

0:09:15.915,0:09:17.298
that fluoresce.

0:09:17.811,0:09:21.781
You'll see there's a picture there[br]showing the yellow pigment

0:09:21.781,0:09:24.630
and then also showing[br]the fluorescence only.

0:09:24.630,0:09:27.301
What's happening is that[br]the fluorescence is also yellow

0:09:27.303,0:09:30.898
and is enhancing[br]the effect of the yellow pigment.

0:09:30.907,0:09:35.533
I found that some yellow feathers[br]are producing fluorescence

0:09:35.540,0:09:36.950
and others are not.

0:09:36.950,0:09:39.010
In fact, those that[br]are used for courtship,

0:09:39.010,0:09:41.838
those in areas of the plumage[br]used to attract a female,

0:09:41.838,0:09:44.344
they've got the fluorescent pigment.

0:09:44.353,0:09:47.150
So it's not just incidental[br]of a yellow pigment.

0:09:47.150,0:09:48.547
Evolution has acted on this

0:09:48.551,0:09:51.770
to be very, very efficient[br]at producing the yellow light.

0:09:52.950,0:09:57.260
Fluorescence results from[br]an effect at the atomic level,

0:09:57.642,0:10:01.253
where white light comes in,[br]including ultraviolet light.

0:10:01.852,0:10:04.231
Ultraviolet, which we don't see,

0:10:04.245,0:10:08.802
is eaten up and rejected again[br]in a longer wavelength.

0:10:08.811,0:10:12.630
So some of the high energy[br]that is contained in ultraviolet light

0:10:12.638,0:10:16.651
is used up when an electron jumps[br]into an outer shell.

0:10:16.651,0:10:19.852
When the electron immediately[br]drops down back to its original shell,

0:10:19.852,0:10:22.472
that energy is re-emitted,[br]but a little is lost as heat,

0:10:22.472,0:10:23.683
so there's less energy,

0:10:23.684,0:10:26.592
which means a longer wavelength[br]or yellow light, for example.

0:10:26.592,0:10:29.044
So we go from ultraviolet light,[br]which we don't see,

0:10:29.046,0:10:30.873
to yellow light, which we do.

0:10:30.873,0:10:33.234
Now, this is my favourite subject,

0:10:33.234,0:10:37.982
this is structural colour,[br]nature's nanotechnology, if you like.

0:10:38.603,0:10:43.645
These are physical structures made[br]from completely transparent materials.

0:10:43.645,0:10:46.405
It's the architecture at the nanoscale

0:10:46.405,0:10:49.554
that's important in determining[br]what colour is reflected,

0:10:49.554,0:10:52.634
or what type of light effect[br]that you can see.

0:10:52.634,0:10:57.269
Here we have the spines[br]of a sea mouse called Aphrodita

0:10:57.307,0:10:59.963
found around Sydney's beaches.

0:11:00.253,0:11:04.154
It's a strange-looking animal;[br]it looks like a little iridescent mouse.

0:11:04.224,0:11:05.764
But it's a marine animal,

0:11:05.764,0:11:07.874
and it's covered[br]in these iridescent spines.

0:11:07.874,0:11:09.413
If you cut through those spines,

0:11:09.419,0:11:11.558
you can see these tiny nanotubes

0:11:11.558,0:11:14.598
that form what's called[br]a photonic crystal fibre.

0:11:15.297,0:11:19.105
Photonic crystals were only discovered[br]in physics in the 1980s,

0:11:19.120,0:11:22.612
and they've since been used in all sorts[br]of technological applications.

0:11:22.614,0:11:25.146
They're going to revolutionize[br]computers in the future

0:11:25.152,0:11:27.854
with optical chips[br]instead of electronic chips.

0:11:28.132,0:11:30.335
These types of photonic crystal fibres

0:11:30.349,0:11:33.402
are already used[br]in the telecommunications industry.

0:11:34.604,0:11:37.484
But we've got designs in nature[br]that aren't known in physics,

0:11:37.484,0:11:40.208
and we don't fully understand[br]how it works in physics yet.

0:11:40.208,0:11:43.864
So, let's just copy[br]what nature's got for now.

0:11:43.864,0:11:45.644
And in fact, I didn't find this one.

0:11:45.644,0:11:48.175
This was the first photonic crystal[br]found in nature,

0:11:48.175,0:11:50.948
which I found in the year 2000.

0:11:50.958,0:11:53.058
But we'd have saved[br]ourselves a lot of time

0:11:53.058,0:11:55.475
if we'd started looking at nature earlier.

0:11:57.262,0:12:00.667
Butterflies are really good examples[br]of photonic crystals.

0:12:00.667,0:12:04.375
A butterfly's wing contains[br]about a hundred thousand scales

0:12:04.375,0:12:06.335
overlapping like tiles on a roof.

0:12:06.485,0:12:08.977
Each of those scales[br]are filled with nanostructures

0:12:08.978,0:12:11.858
that interact with light waves[br]in various ways.

0:12:12.625,0:12:14.613
And you'll see by these next slides -

0:12:14.619,0:12:19.558
we've got electron micrographs[br]showing the fine details on those scales,

0:12:19.857,0:12:22.687
again about 100th[br]of a hair's width in size -

0:12:22.707,0:12:24.998
you'll see how those structures change

0:12:24.998,0:12:27.998
almost like the shape[br]of a building can change,

0:12:27.998,0:12:31.948
but when it's on that nanoscale,[br]around the wavelength of light in scale,

0:12:32.552,0:12:35.208
then they will change the colour effect.

0:12:36.402,0:12:39.818
So you can see these various[br]architectures producing different colours,

0:12:39.818,0:12:44.013
and they can change the way[br]that colour changes.

0:12:44.019,0:12:45.960
As you walk around these scales,

0:12:45.971,0:12:48.932
you can get a change in colour,[br]or you can get constant colour,

0:12:48.940,0:12:52.632
you can get very bright scales,[br]or you can get duller examples.

0:12:57.760,0:13:01.441
A good example[br]of a photonic crystal is opal,

0:13:01.571,0:13:05.841
the gemstone opal as you can see[br]in this top-left picture there.

0:13:06.101,0:13:09.902
Opal is filled with tiny nanospheres.

0:13:09.906,0:13:11.612
They're close-packed together.

0:13:11.616,0:13:12.951
Light rays come in

0:13:12.953,0:13:16.200
and bounce around inside this structure[br]and interact with each other

0:13:16.204,0:13:18.138
to produce these iridescent colours.

0:13:19.224,0:13:24.530
But interestingly, I found opal,[br]in 2005, in a weevil, an animal.

0:13:24.530,0:13:26.973
So, a living thing producing opal.

0:13:27.543,0:13:30.549
Well, opal does have[br]lots of technological applications

0:13:30.551,0:13:32.509
such as it will appear in computer chips.

0:13:32.511,0:13:35.160
Industry makes it at high energy costs;

0:13:35.180,0:13:37.620
we need high temperatures and pressures.

0:13:37.620,0:13:42.553
But nature, animals, are doing this[br]at room temperatures and pressures.

0:13:43.221,0:13:45.320
They're magically[br]mixing together chemicals,

0:13:45.326,0:13:48.835
and out comes this perfect opal,[br]using very, very low energy.

0:13:48.844,0:13:51.231
So, this is something[br]we're trying to do at moment.

0:13:51.234,0:13:53.677
We're trying to image these scales[br]in living weevils

0:13:53.680,0:13:56.430
to work out how they're[br]making these devices,

0:13:56.457,0:13:59.588
and see if we can copy it[br]and bring this process to industry.

0:14:02.301,0:14:05.577
Some optical devices in nature[br]don't produce any colour at all.

0:14:05.582,0:14:06.862
In fact the opposite:

0:14:06.870,0:14:08.960
they prevent any kind of reflections,

0:14:09.062,0:14:11.310
all the light passes through a surface,

0:14:11.310,0:14:14.620
such as I found on the eye[br]of this 45-million-year-old fly

0:14:14.620,0:14:15.970
preserved in amber.

0:14:15.970,0:14:18.212
This very fine structure[br]you can just about see

0:14:18.212,0:14:21.200
in this electron micrograph,[br]these very fine striations.

0:14:21.200,0:14:25.840
When I made this onto a perspex surface,[br]as you can see in the bottom right,

0:14:25.850,0:14:28.052
in the centre there,[br]you've got this structure,

0:14:28.052,0:14:30.710
and you can see how the reflections[br]are being cut down.

0:14:30.710,0:14:34.090
It allows all the light to pass through[br]instead of being reflected.

0:14:34.096,0:14:35.986
If you put this onto a glass window,

0:14:35.991,0:14:38.393
you'd no longer see[br]reflections of yourself.

0:14:38.406,0:14:42.963
But put onto solar panels,[br]we get a 10% increase in energy capture.

0:14:45.532,0:14:46.808
Now, several years ago,

0:14:46.815,0:14:50.413
I started to expand my interest[br]in biomimetics, in optics or colour,

0:14:50.413,0:14:51.618
into other subjects,

0:14:51.618,0:14:56.208
such as looking at strong materials[br]in beetles or mantis shrimps,

0:14:56.208,0:14:58.973
looking at glues that work underwater,

0:14:58.973,0:15:03.623
designs of buildings based[br]on natural animals and plants,

0:15:04.096,0:15:07.334
and also air-conditioning systems,[br]such as found in termite mounds,

0:15:07.336,0:15:08.546
to put into buildings,

0:15:08.546,0:15:10.079
which require very little power.

0:15:10.738,0:15:13.738
One thing that really grabbed me is water.

0:15:13.738,0:15:16.750
Just quickly, here's an example[br]of a Namibian beetle,

0:15:16.750,0:15:18.148
where I found a structure

0:15:18.152,0:15:21.140
that collects water from desert fogs[br]very, very efficiently.

0:15:21.140,0:15:23.461
It's now being put into[br]air-conditioning systems

0:15:23.461,0:15:26.111
to extract the water out and to recycle.

0:15:26.111,0:15:27.511
But nature is telling us

0:15:27.511,0:15:31.631
that there's a whole airborne[br]source of water to tap into,

0:15:31.631,0:15:34.441
which animals and plants[br]are doing in deserts, for example.

0:15:34.441,0:15:38.183
That's what I'm working on now[br]in collaboration with MIT,

0:15:38.195,0:15:42.428
and we hope to get[br]the first devices out into Africa

0:15:42.445,0:15:46.639
to collect water for drinking[br]and medicine quite soon.

0:15:48.182,0:15:51.761
So, unfortunately, I can't reveal exactly[br]the plans that I have next.

0:15:51.761,0:15:55.063
We've got some very exciting things[br]coming up, particularly next year,

0:15:55.100,0:15:58.391
but at least I've been able to give you[br]an introduction to the subject

0:15:58.400,0:15:59.811
and say where it all began,

0:15:59.819,0:16:02.955
which was 520 million years ago.

0:16:03.246,0:16:04.437
Thank you very much.

0:16:04.441,0:16:06.803
(Applause)