[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:15.25,0:00:17.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I would like to share with you today
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.33,0:00:23.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a very interesting experience\NI had in my neurosurgical life.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:23.28,0:00:25.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I am a neurosurgeon,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:25.54,0:00:29.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I have to deal\Nwith human tragedies daily.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.40,0:00:36.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a real disaster to see people\Nafter a car accident or after a stroke.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.62,0:00:40.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you have a big part\Nof your brain that is destroyed,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:40.46,0:00:46.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,unfortunately, the central nervous system\Nhas very little ability for self-repair.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:46.13,0:00:51.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of my neurosurgical dreams was\Nalways to try to give back a function
Dialogue: 0,0:00:51.67,0:00:53.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to someone who has lost it
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.18,0:00:56.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because people remain\Nseverely handicapped,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.46,0:00:59.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it's revolting to see that every day.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:59.83,0:01:02.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So that's probably\Nwhy I've chosen this specialty
Dialogue: 0,0:01:02.92,0:01:04.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,called functional neurosurgery.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:04.90,0:01:07.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Functional neurosurgeons try
Dialogue: 0,0:01:07.11,0:01:12.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to give back functions or to improve them\Nthrough surgical strategies
Dialogue: 0,0:01:12.64,0:01:17.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like deep brain stimulation, for example,\Nthat's the most famous strategy.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:18.80,0:01:22.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,14 years ago, I participated
Dialogue: 0,0:01:22.51,0:01:26.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a major discovery that, in my opinion,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:26.71,0:01:29.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would have an important impact\Non the patient's recovery
Dialogue: 0,0:01:29.81,0:01:33.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,after a major insult\Nto the central nervous system.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:33.100,0:01:37.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's the story\NI would like to tell you today.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:37.36,0:01:39.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Before telling you the story,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.10,0:01:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I have to introduce you to\Ntwo very important and different actors;
Dialogue: 0,0:01:46.00,0:01:50.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,without them it'd never have been\Npossible to have this story today.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.89,0:01:55.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first one is not in the room.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:55.06,0:01:57.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can understand why.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:57.43,0:02:01.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's not exactly this cow,\Nbut she represents her cousin,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:01.63,0:02:03.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the South American cow.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:03.96,0:02:07.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Without the serum\Nof this South American cow,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:07.56,0:02:12.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would not have been able\Nto grow adult brain cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:12.54,0:02:18.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The second actor, he is not in the room,\Nbut he is not eating grass.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:18.49,0:02:22.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He is my very good friend\Nand collaborator, Jean-François Brunet,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:22.60,0:02:27.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who is a biologist and without\Nwhose patience and pugnacity,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:27.35,0:02:31.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we would never have been able\Nto grow adult brain cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:31.75,0:02:34.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So now, let's go back to the story.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.62,0:02:40.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to imagine\Nthat about 14 years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:40.67,0:02:43.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I was a chief resident in neurosurgery,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.47,0:02:49.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and chief residents work a lot,\Nday and night, doing a lot of emergencies.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:49.44,0:02:54.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And sometimes, during these emergencies\Nyou have to remove a piece of the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.92,0:02:58.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's not for fun, it's because\Nsomeone had a car accident,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.26,0:03:01.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,has a swollen brain,\Nand you have to do craniectomy,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:01.52,0:03:04.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,otherwise the patient is going to die;
Dialogue: 0,0:03:04.50,0:03:07.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so, sometimes, you have to\Nremove a piece of the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:07.82,0:03:11.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we thought with Jean-François\Nwho is a biologist in his lab:
Dialogue: 0,0:03:11.21,0:03:13.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Why shouldn't we do something
Dialogue: 0,0:03:13.18,0:03:17.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with these pieces of the brain\Nthat we have to sample so often?"
Dialogue: 0,0:03:17.63,0:03:19.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Jean-François and his patient said:
Dialogue: 0,0:03:19.95,0:03:23.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"I'm sure I am going to do\Nsomething very interesting with that."
Dialogue: 0,0:03:23.28,0:03:26.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He tried with different types of serums,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.08,0:03:30.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he saw, finally,\Nafter many, many attempts,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:30.33,0:03:34.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the serums from the cow\NI introduced to you previously...
Dialogue: 0,0:03:34.65,0:03:39.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One day he saw that under his microscope.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:39.11,0:03:43.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you have to realize\Nis that this type of culture
Dialogue: 0,0:03:43.90,0:03:47.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,really looks like a stem cell culture.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:47.52,0:03:51.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But you also have to know\Nthat at that time, 14 years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:51.44,0:03:57.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we thought that the only stem cells\Nwe have in the central nervous system
Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.23,0:04:02.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,were really deeply located\Nin the brain in two very small niches.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:02.94,0:04:07.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But here, Jean-François with any type\Nof samples he got from cortex,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:07.41,0:04:12.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,got this type of cells,\Nwhich was incredible.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:12.34,0:04:16.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what you can see,\Non this type of cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.08,0:04:18.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the green cells here are astrocytes
Dialogue: 0,0:04:18.46,0:04:22.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,those are the cells that are supporting\Nthe neurons in the normal brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:22.85,0:04:28.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and inside these little round cells are\Nimmature neurons, immature little cells
Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.33,0:04:31.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that could turn into mature cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:31.75,0:04:35.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So when we showed that\Nto people at that time, they said:
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.85,0:04:40.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"That's not possible to have stem cells\Nin this type of culture from the cortex,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:40.89,0:04:45.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you must have taken some stem cells\N[from the cortex into the culture]."
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.34,0:04:48.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We said, "No," because they\Ndo not behave like stem cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:48.69,0:04:53.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they divide much more slowly,\Nand they never form tumors,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:53.49,0:04:55.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they are really more indolent,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:55.72,0:05:01.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and after awhile, 10 or 15 weeks\Nof culture, they also die.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:01.67,0:05:05.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's not like something\Nwhich is renewing and renewing.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:06.32,0:05:12.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Finally, we realized\Nwhere these cells came from
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.32,0:05:14.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,- because they were not coming\Nfrom stem cells -
Dialogue: 0,0:05:14.84,0:05:18.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these blue cells you see here.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:18.88,0:05:21.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All of you have these cells in your brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:21.60,0:05:24.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's something\Nthat was discovered quite recently.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:24.68,0:05:30.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These cells are called\Ndouble-quotient positive cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.12,0:05:33.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They are very abundant in fetuses
Dialogue: 0,0:05:33.33,0:05:38.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because they help the formation\Nof the folding of the cortex.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.08,0:05:44.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our cortex is like a folded structure,\Nand these cells help with that.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:44.64,0:05:49.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But we thought\Nthat they disappear in adults,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:49.28,0:05:52.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but we discovered more recently\Nthat it was not true.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:52.82,0:05:57.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,4% of the cortical cells are\Ndouble-quotient positive cells.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.66,0:06:00.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We don't know what they are for.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:00.75,0:06:02.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or what they are.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:02.24,0:06:05.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Do they help us when we have a lesion\Nsomewhere? We don't exactly know that.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:05.97,0:06:08.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But what we know is that from these cells
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.40,0:06:11.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we got this cell culture\Nthat I showed you.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:12.92,0:06:15.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So of course, when biologists\Nwork with neurosurgeons,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.87,0:06:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,neurosurgeons are always very pragmatic:
Dialogue: 0,0:06:18.00,0:06:22.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Wow, that's a great source of cells.\NWe may do something."
Dialogue: 0,0:06:22.42,0:06:24.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I told you that we are so frustrated
Dialogue: 0,0:06:24.90,0:06:29.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because the central nervous system\Nhas so little ability for self-repair.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:29.31,0:06:33.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Maybe we've found\Nsomething to help our patients.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:35.51,0:06:39.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We thought a little bit,\Nand we came up with one concept.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:40.64,0:06:44.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why shouldn't we take\Na biopsy of one individual?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:46.49,0:06:48.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-Because we know how to do it;
Dialogue: 0,0:06:48.37,0:06:53.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we put these cells in culture\N- we know how to do it -
Dialogue: 0,0:06:53.21,0:06:55.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we labeled the cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:55.42,0:06:59.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then we re-implant\Nthe cells somewhere else in the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.50,0:07:01.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Great. Let's do it.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:01.89,0:07:04.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Of course, you can't do it\Non a human first,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:04.85,0:07:11.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,everybody knows you have to\Ndo it first in a rodent model.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:11.11,0:07:14.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But unfortunately, rodents don't have
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.13,0:07:17.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these double-quotient\Npositive cells in their cortex.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.91,0:07:21.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We don't know why,\Nbut a rodent doesn't help us.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:21.51,0:07:26.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we had to find\Nanother type of animal to work with.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:26.03,0:07:27.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Fortunately, we met...
Dialogue: 0,0:07:27.74,0:07:32.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,- I already knew him, he was a good friend\Nand he believed in our concept -
Dialogue: 0,0:07:32.21,0:07:36.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Eric Rouiller, Professor of Physiology\Nin Fribourg, who has
Dialogue: 0,0:07:36.58,0:07:39.44,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the biggest monkey facility in Switzerland
Dialogue: 0,0:07:39.44,0:07:41.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he helped us.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:41.40,0:07:45.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He said: "Your concept is great,\NI believe in what you are doing.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:45.50,0:07:48.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Try with these two monkeys."
Dialogue: 0,0:07:48.78,0:07:50.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We were very excited.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:50.58,0:07:52.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,First we could prove
Dialogue: 0,0:07:52.11,0:07:55.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we were able to do exactly\Nthe same culture as that in humans,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.32,0:07:59.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because monkeys have exactly\Nthe same cell composition as us.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:59.53,0:08:03.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Then, we did the cell culture labeling\Nand re-implantation.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:03.47,0:08:06.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first question we had was:
Dialogue: 0,0:08:06.46,0:08:11.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how will these cells behave,\Nif are re-implanted in a normal brain?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:13.14,0:08:18.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What will they become if are re-implanted\Nin a lesion or close to a lesion?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:19.88,0:08:25.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Very interestingly, when they're implanted\Nclose in a normal brain, they disappear.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:25.66,0:08:31.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's as if you take a biopsy,\Nyou take the cells out from their home,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:31.07,0:08:35.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you put them in culture,\Nre-implant them in the same individuals
Dialogue: 0,0:08:35.42,0:08:38.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,- so you don't have immunoresponse,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:38.15,0:08:42.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they recognize they're here,\Nbut they see the space is already busy,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.26,0:08:45.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so they say: "I am not necessary\Nhere, so bye-bye, I go."
Dialogue: 0,0:08:45.03,0:08:48.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But if you implant them close to a lesion,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.54,0:08:52.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they go back home and they say,\N"There's an empty space,"
Dialogue: 0,0:08:52.58,0:08:55.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they start to accommodate,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:55.42,0:08:57.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it would take them\Na month, a month and half,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:57.92,0:09:02.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but then they start to grow\Nand become mature neurons.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:02.04,0:09:07.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That was exactly what we saw three months\Nafter a re-implantation close to a lesion.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.04,0:09:10.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see these red cells\Nwhich are those we re-implanted,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:10.79,0:09:14.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and note they are not little round cells\NI showed you in the beginning,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:14.79,0:09:18.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they are bigger neurons with axons;
Dialogue: 0,0:09:18.61,0:09:22.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we were under the impression\Nthat they recolonized the area.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:23.87,0:09:28.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We could also prove very nicely\Nthat these were the same cells
Dialogue: 0,0:09:28.17,0:09:30.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we had used in our culture.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:33.88,0:09:38.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because here you see here that's the dye\Nwe use in our culture, the red dye,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:38.75,0:09:43.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,while the green dye is\Nthe marker for the mature neurons.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:43.72,0:09:47.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you see that these two cells\Nhave a double labeling:
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.86,0:09:50.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it means there are both green and red;
Dialogue: 0,0:09:50.77,0:09:54.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it means they are mature neurons\Nthat were previously in the culture,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:54.03,0:09:55.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as immature neurons,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:55.39,0:09:57.84,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they turned into mature neurons.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.85,0:09:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Of course what is the next step?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.99,0:10:03.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Especially for a neurosurgeon, you want\Nto know what the implications are:
Dialogue: 0,0:10:03.99,0:10:07.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Is it working? Is it good\Nto have these cells in?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:07.67,0:10:09.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So that's what we did.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:09.66,0:10:15.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What we did was we trained\Na few monkeys to do a specific task
Dialogue: 0,0:10:15.49,0:10:20.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,- to take and grab some food pellets\Nin a drawer on a tray -
Dialogue: 0,0:10:20.31,0:10:22.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were really good at it.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:22.07,0:10:26.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It took some time to train them well.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:26.88,0:10:29.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They reached a very good level\Nof performance.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:29.90,0:10:33.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When they were stable\Nat this level of performance,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:33.61,0:10:39.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we performed a little lesion\Nin the central motor cortex
Dialogue: 0,0:10:39.22,0:10:42.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,corresponding to the hand motion.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.71,0:10:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So of course, immediately\Nafter that, they are plegic,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:46.02,0:10:50.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they can not move the arm any more;\Nthey are not able to do the task.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.27,0:10:53.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But nature's done quite well.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.26,0:10:56.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are able of recovery,\Nspontaneous recovery,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:56.46,0:11:00.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,- probably due to the spasticity -
Dialogue: 0,0:11:00.34,0:11:04.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and performance becomes better\Nbut only to a certain extent.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:04.19,0:11:08.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they are able to so something\Nbut not as well as before.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.36,0:11:16.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,At that stage, we took the biopsy,\Nwe did the culture, we re-implanted.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:16.38,0:11:18.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And what we saw,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.45,0:11:23.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I think this picture\Nis better than any graph...
Dialogue: 0,0:11:24.52,0:11:26.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you see, on the left
Dialogue: 0,0:11:28.09,0:11:32.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there is the money at the end\Nof his best recovery,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:32.34,0:11:36.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when he has spontaneously recovered.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:37.38,0:11:41.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On the right, a monkey\Ntwo months after re-implantation.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.49,0:11:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So all the monkeys we re-implanted
Dialogue: 0,0:11:46.00,0:11:50.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,performed better than those\Nthat haven't been re-implanted.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:53.36,0:11:55.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, I think it's a nice story.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:58.00,0:12:00.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So now what is the next step?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:00.02,0:12:03.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Of course, we have a lot of experiments\Ndone, with different models,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:03.50,0:12:06.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we have understood\Nmany things since then.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:06.53,0:12:11.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But still, my aim, and from the beginning\Nof my talk, is to apply this to humans.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:13.83,0:12:17.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I must say that enthusiasm\Ndecreases a little bit
Dialogue: 0,0:12:17.46,0:12:23.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when you realize how difficult it is\Nto go through all these processes.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:23.42,0:12:28.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And to again obtain the authorization\Nto go into human trials.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:29.29,0:12:33.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, I still hope I'll be able\Nto do it before I retire.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:34.23,0:12:36.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you so much for your attention.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.54,0:12:38.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)