WEBVTT

00:00:00.858 --> 00:00:04.786
Memory is such an everyday thing
that we almost take it for granted.

00:00:05.200 --> 00:00:08.355
We all remember what we had
for breakfast this morning,

00:00:08.355 --> 00:00:09.756
or what we did last weekend.

00:00:09.756 --> 00:00:12.199
It's only when memory starts to fail

00:00:12.199 --> 00:00:14.607
that we appreciate just how amazing it is,

00:00:14.681 --> 00:00:18.140
and how much we allow
our past experiences to define us.

NOTE Paragraph

00:00:19.759 --> 00:00:22.996
But memory is not always a good thing.

00:00:22.996 --> 00:00:26.733
As the American poet and clergyman
John Lancaster Spalding once said,

00:00:26.733 --> 00:00:30.176
"As memory may be a paradise
from which we cannot be driven,

00:00:30.176 --> 00:00:33.479
it may also be a hell
from which we cannot escape."

00:00:35.047 --> 00:00:38.256
Many of us experience
chapters of our lives

00:00:38.256 --> 00:00:40.593
that we would prefer
to never have happened.

00:00:40.593 --> 00:00:43.127
It is estimated that
nearly 90 percent of us

00:00:43.127 --> 00:00:46.864
will experience some sort of
traumatic event during our lifetimes.

00:00:47.905 --> 00:00:52.393
Many of us will suffer acutely
following these events, and then recover,

00:00:52.595 --> 00:00:56.046
maybe even become better people
because of those experiences.

00:00:57.080 --> 00:00:59.423
But some events are so extreme

00:00:59.773 --> 00:01:04.344
that many, up to half of those
who survive sexual violence, for example,

00:01:04.944 --> 00:01:07.853
will go on to develop
post-traumatic stress disorder,

00:01:07.853 --> 00:01:09.405
or PTSD.

NOTE Paragraph

00:01:10.690 --> 00:01:14.043
PTSD is a debilitating
mental health condition

00:01:14.043 --> 00:01:17.362
characterized by symptoms
such as intense fear and anxiety

00:01:17.362 --> 00:01:20.606
and flashbacks of the traumatic event.

00:01:22.007 --> 00:01:25.960
These symptoms have a huge impact
on a person's quality of life

00:01:26.177 --> 00:01:29.204
and are often triggered
by particular situations

00:01:29.437 --> 00:01:31.855
or cues in that person's environment.

00:01:32.830 --> 00:01:37.478
The responses to those cues may have been
adaptive when they were first learned --

00:01:37.478 --> 00:01:41.171
fear and diving for cover
in a war zone, for example --

00:01:41.171 --> 00:01:42.755
but in PTSD,

00:01:42.755 --> 00:01:46.344
they continue to control behavior
when it's no longer appropriate.

00:01:46.910 --> 00:01:50.270
If a combat veteran returns home
and is diving for cover

00:01:50.270 --> 00:01:52.488
when he or she hears a car backfiring,

00:01:52.488 --> 00:01:55.975
or can't leave their own home
because of intense anxiety,

00:01:55.975 --> 00:01:59.986
then the response
to those cues, those memories,

00:01:59.986 --> 00:02:03.924
have become what we
would refer to as maladaptive.

00:02:04.254 --> 00:02:10.739
In this way, we can think of PTSD
as being a disorder of maladaptive memory.

NOTE Paragraph

00:02:12.454 --> 00:02:14.354
Now I should stop myself here,

00:02:14.586 --> 00:02:17.723
because I'm talking about memory
as if it's a single thing.

00:02:17.723 --> 00:02:18.807
It isn't.

00:02:18.807 --> 00:02:21.376
There are many different types of memory,

00:02:21.376 --> 00:02:25.571
and these depend upon different circuits
and regions within the brain.

00:02:25.870 --> 00:02:31.343
As you can see, there are two
major distinctions in our types of memory.

00:02:31.777 --> 00:02:34.118
There are those memories
that we're consciously aware of,

00:02:34.118 --> 00:02:35.554
where we know we know

00:02:35.554 --> 00:02:37.638
and that we can pass on in words.

00:02:37.638 --> 00:02:40.624
This would include memories
for facts and events.

00:02:41.058 --> 00:02:43.368
Because we can declare these memories,

00:02:43.368 --> 00:02:45.919
we refer to these as declarative memories.

00:02:46.253 --> 00:02:50.324
The other type of memory
is non-declarative.

00:02:50.324 --> 00:02:53.933
These are memories where we often
don't have conscious access

00:02:53.933 --> 00:02:55.868
to the content of those memories

00:02:55.868 --> 00:02:57.904
and that we can't pass on in words.

NOTE Paragraph

00:02:58.138 --> 00:03:01.224
The classic example
of a non-declarative memory

00:03:01.224 --> 00:03:04.534
is the motor skill for riding a bike.

00:03:04.534 --> 00:03:08.219
Now, this being Cambridge,
the odds are that you can ride a bike.

00:03:08.219 --> 00:03:10.672
You know what you're doing on two wheels.

00:03:10.672 --> 00:03:13.599
But if I asked you to write me
a list of instructions

00:03:13.798 --> 00:03:16.019
that would teach me how to ride a bike,

00:03:16.019 --> 00:03:18.786
as my four-year old son did
when we bought him a bike

00:03:18.786 --> 00:03:20.221
for his last birthday,

00:03:20.221 --> 00:03:22.980
you would really struggle to do that.

00:03:23.331 --> 00:03:26.033
How should you sit on the bike
so you're balanced?

00:03:26.033 --> 00:03:28.702
How fast do you need to pedal
so you're stable?

00:03:28.702 --> 00:03:30.587
If a gust of wind comes at you,

00:03:30.587 --> 00:03:33.396
which muscles should you tense
and by how much

00:03:33.396 --> 00:03:35.798
so that you don't get blown off?

00:03:36.666 --> 00:03:40.020
I'll be staggered if you can give
the answers to those questions.

00:03:40.020 --> 00:03:43.329
But if you can ride a bike,
you do have the answers,

00:03:43.329 --> 00:03:45.715
you're just not consciously aware of them.

NOTE Paragraph

00:03:49.117 --> 00:03:50.835
Getting back to PTSD,

00:03:50.835 --> 00:03:53.264
another type of non-declarative memory

00:03:53.264 --> 00:03:55.313
is emotional memory.

NOTE Paragraph

00:03:55.313 --> 00:03:57.767
Now this has a specific
meaning in psychology

00:03:57.767 --> 00:04:01.271
and refers to our ability
to learn about cues in our environment

00:04:01.271 --> 00:04:04.028
and their emotional
and motivational significance.

00:04:04.329 --> 00:04:06.580
What do I mean by that?

00:04:06.580 --> 00:04:10.351
Well, think of a cue
like a smell of baking bread,

00:04:10.718 --> 00:04:13.309
or a more abstract cue
like a 20-pound note.

00:04:14.044 --> 00:04:17.380
Because these cues have been pegged
with good things in the past,

00:04:17.581 --> 00:04:20.050
we like them and we approach them.

00:04:20.050 --> 00:04:24.877
Other cues, like the buzzing of a wasp,
elicit very negative emotions

00:04:24.877 --> 00:04:29.715
and quite dramatic
avoidance behavior in some people.

NOTE Paragraph

00:04:29.882 --> 00:04:32.451
Now, I hate wasps.

00:04:32.451 --> 00:04:34.076
I can tell you that fact.

00:04:34.076 --> 00:04:37.679
But what I can't give you
are the non-declarative emotional memories

00:04:37.679 --> 00:04:40.198
for how I react
when there's a wasp nearby.

00:04:40.198 --> 00:04:42.267
I can't give you the racing heart,

00:04:42.267 --> 00:04:45.543
the sweaty palms,
that sense of rising panic.

00:04:45.744 --> 00:04:51.315
I can describe them to you,
but I can't give them to you.

00:04:52.633 --> 00:04:55.575
Now importantly,
from the perspective of PTSD,

00:04:55.575 --> 00:05:00.080
stress has very different effects on
declarative and non-declarative memories

00:05:00.080 --> 00:05:03.066
and the brain circuits
and regions supporting them.

00:05:03.223 --> 00:05:07.194
Emotional memory is supported
by a small almond-shaped structure

00:05:07.194 --> 00:05:09.646
called the amygdala and its connections.

00:05:10.121 --> 00:05:14.524
Declarative memory, especially the what,
where and when of ?? memory,

00:05:14.524 --> 00:05:17.227
is supported by a seahorse-shaped
region of the brain

00:05:17.227 --> 00:05:18.745
called the hippocampus.

NOTE Paragraph

00:05:18.745 --> 00:05:22.589
The extreme levels of stress
experienced during trauma

00:05:22.589 --> 00:05:26.474
have very different effects
on these two structures.

00:05:26.474 --> 00:05:30.286
As you can see, as you increase
a person's level of stress

00:05:30.286 --> 00:05:32.354
from not stressful to slightly stressful,

00:05:32.354 --> 00:05:33.405
the hippocampus,

00:05:33.405 --> 00:05:35.567
acting to support the event memory,

00:05:35.567 --> 00:05:38.459
increases in its activity
and works better to support

00:05:38.459 --> 00:05:40.786
the storage of that declarative memory.

00:05:41.136 --> 00:05:44.305
But as you increase
to moderately stressful,

00:05:44.305 --> 00:05:47.025
intensely stressful,
and then extremely stressful,

00:05:47.241 --> 00:05:52.323
as would be found in trauma,
the hippocampus effectively shuts down.

00:05:52.720 --> 00:05:56.372
This means that under
the high levels of stress hormones

00:05:56.372 --> 00:06:00.600
that are experienced during trauma,
we are not storing the details,

00:06:00.600 --> 00:06:03.987
the specific details,
of what, where and when.

00:06:05.621 --> 00:06:07.924
Now, while stress is doing that
to the hippocampus,

00:06:07.924 --> 00:06:09.441
look at what it does to the amygdala,

00:06:09.441 --> 00:06:13.251
that structure important
for the emotional, non-declarative memory.

00:06:13.251 --> 00:06:16.318
Its activity gets stronger and stronger.

00:06:17.957 --> 00:06:22.578
So what this leaves us with in PTSD
is an overly strong emotional,

00:06:22.578 --> 00:06:24.313
in this case fear, memory

00:06:24.313 --> 00:06:27.232
that is not tied
to a specific time or place

00:06:27.431 --> 00:06:32.093
because the hippocampus
is not storing what, where and when.

00:06:32.643 --> 00:06:35.763
In this way, these cues
can control behavior

00:06:35.763 --> 00:06:41.075
when it's no longer appropriate,
and that's how they become maladaptive.

NOTE Paragraph

00:06:41.308 --> 00:06:46.729
So if we know that PTSD
is due to maladaptive memories,

00:06:46.729 --> 00:06:50.123
can we use that knowledge
to improve treatment outcomes

00:06:50.123 --> 00:06:51.874
for patients with PTSD?

NOTE Paragraph

00:06:52.925 --> 00:06:58.388
A radical new approach being developed
to treat post-traumatic stress disorder

00:06:58.388 --> 00:07:02.040
aims to destroy those maladaptive
emotional memories

00:07:02.040 --> 00:07:03.926
that underly the disorder.

00:07:04.264 --> 00:07:07.129
This approach has only
been considered a possibility

00:07:07.129 --> 00:07:09.088
because of the profound changes

00:07:09.088 --> 00:07:11.889
in our understanding
of memory in recent years.

00:07:12.774 --> 00:07:15.476
Traditionally, it was thought
that making a memory

00:07:15.476 --> 00:07:17.845
was like writing in a notebook in pen.

00:07:17.845 --> 00:07:21.204
Once the ink had dried,
you couldn't change the information.

00:07:21.889 --> 00:07:24.277
It was thought that all
those structural changes

00:07:24.277 --> 00:07:26.926
that happen in the brain
to support the storage of memory

00:07:26.926 --> 00:07:28.585
were finished with in about six hours,

00:07:28.585 --> 00:07:30.620
and after that they were permanent.

00:07:30.887 --> 00:07:33.872
This is known as the consolidation view.

NOTE Paragraph

00:07:34.424 --> 00:07:38.434
However, more recent research suggests
that making a memory

00:07:38.434 --> 00:07:41.170
is actually more like writing
in a word processor.

00:07:41.437 --> 00:07:45.307
We initially make the memory
and then we save it or store it,

00:07:45.591 --> 00:07:48.884
but under the right conditions
we can edit that memory.

00:07:49.168 --> 00:07:53.938
This re-consolidation view suggests
that those structural changes

00:07:53.938 --> 00:07:56.358
that happen in the brain to support memory

00:07:56.358 --> 00:07:58.013
can be undone,

00:07:58.013 --> 00:08:00.451
even for old memories.

NOTE Paragraph

00:08:00.802 --> 00:08:05.455
Now, this editing process
isn't happening all the time.

00:08:05.939 --> 00:08:08.767
It only happens under
very specific conditions

00:08:08.767 --> 00:08:11.525
of memory retrieval.

00:08:11.525 --> 00:08:15.121
So let's consider memory retrieval
as being recalling the memory

00:08:15.121 --> 00:08:17.973
or, like, opening the file.

00:08:17.973 --> 00:08:20.816
Quite often, we are simply
retrieving the memory.

00:08:21.000 --> 00:08:24.087
We are opening the file as read-only.

00:08:24.087 --> 00:08:26.055
But under the right conditions,

00:08:26.055 --> 00:08:28.322
we can open that file in edit mode,

00:08:28.515 --> 00:08:30.716
and then we can change the information.

00:08:30.716 --> 00:08:34.508
In theory, we could delete
the content of that file,

00:08:34.508 --> 00:08:36.171
and when we press save,

00:08:36.171 --> 00:08:37.588
that is how the file,

00:08:37.588 --> 00:08:39.614
the memory,

00:08:39.614 --> 00:08:40.865
persists.

00:08:41.216 --> 00:08:45.169
Not only does this re-consolidation view

00:08:45.403 --> 00:08:48.847
allow us to account for some
of the quirks of memory,

00:08:48.847 --> 00:08:51.831
like how we all sometimes
mis-remember the past,

00:08:51.831 --> 00:08:55.686
it also gives us a way to destroy
those maladaptive fear memories

00:08:55.936 --> 00:08:57.920
that underly PTSD.

00:08:58.711 --> 00:09:01.298
All we would need would be two things:

00:09:01.298 --> 00:09:03.817
a way of making the memory unstable,

00:09:03.817 --> 00:09:05.985
opening that file in edit mode;

00:09:06.402 --> 00:09:09.545
and a way to delete the information.

NOTE Paragraph

00:09:09.545 --> 00:09:11.397
We've made the most progress

00:09:11.397 --> 00:09:14.132
with working out
how to delete the information.

00:09:14.132 --> 00:09:19.828
It was found fairly early on
that a drug widely prescribed

00:09:19.828 --> 00:09:22.877
to control blood pressure in humans,
a beta blocker called Propranolol,

00:09:22.877 --> 00:09:25.136
could be used to prevent
the re-consolidation

00:09:25.136 --> 00:09:26.737
of fear memories in rats.

00:09:26.737 --> 00:09:31.065
If Propranolol was given
while the memory was in edit mode,

00:09:31.065 --> 00:09:35.675
rats behaved as if they were no longer
afraid of a frightening trigger cue.

00:09:35.675 --> 00:09:40.197
It was as if they had never learned
to be afraid of that cue.

00:09:40.547 --> 00:09:43.958
And this was with a drug
that was safe for use in humans.

00:09:45.074 --> 00:09:47.928
Now, not longer after that,
it was shown that Propranolol

00:09:47.928 --> 00:09:50.413
could destroy fear memories
in humans as well,

00:09:50.413 --> 00:09:55.357
but critically it only works
if the memory is in edit mode.

NOTE Paragraph

00:09:56.409 --> 00:09:58.845
Now, that study was with
healthy human volunteers,

00:09:58.845 --> 00:10:01.930
but it's important because it shows
that the rat findings

00:10:01.930 --> 00:10:06.041
can be extended to humans,
and ultimately to human patients.

00:10:06.458 --> 00:10:09.144
And with humans,

00:10:09.144 --> 00:10:13.655
you can test whether destroying
the non-declarative emotional memory

00:10:13.655 --> 00:10:17.409
does anything to
the declarative event memory.

00:10:17.791 --> 00:10:20.194
And this is really interesting.

00:10:20.194 --> 00:10:22.838
Even though people
who were given Propranolol

00:10:22.838 --> 00:10:24.704
while the memory was in edit mode

00:10:24.704 --> 00:10:28.191
were no longer afraid
of that frightening trigger cue,

00:10:28.191 --> 00:10:30.743
they could still describe the relationship

00:10:30.743 --> 00:10:34.403
between the cue
and the frightening outcome.

00:10:35.354 --> 00:10:39.009
It was as if they knew
they should be afraid,

00:10:39.009 --> 00:10:41.895
and yet they weren't.

00:10:42.261 --> 00:10:45.654
This suggests that Propranolol
can selectively target

00:10:45.654 --> 00:10:48.007
the non-declarative emotional memory

00:10:48.007 --> 00:10:51.693
but leave the declarative
event memory intact.

00:10:52.094 --> 00:10:56.270
But critically, Propranolol can only have
any effect on the memory

00:10:56.270 --> 00:10:58.238
if it's in edit mode.

NOTE Paragraph

00:10:59.290 --> 00:11:01.376
So how do we make a memory unstable?

00:11:01.592 --> 00:11:03.834
How do we get it into edit mode?

00:11:03.834 --> 00:11:06.538
Well, my own lab has done
quite a lot of work on this.

00:11:06.538 --> 00:11:11.307
We know that it depends on introducing
some but not too much new information

00:11:11.307 --> 00:11:13.900
to be incorporated into the memory.

00:11:13.900 --> 00:11:17.137
We know about the different chemicals
the brain uses to signal

00:11:17.137 --> 00:11:18.872
that a memory should be updated

00:11:18.872 --> 00:11:21.340
and the file edited.

00:11:21.340 --> 00:11:23.382
Now our work is mostly in rats,

00:11:23.382 --> 00:11:27.836
but other labs have found the same factors
allow memories to be edited in humans,

00:11:28.320 --> 00:11:32.914
even maladaptive memories
like those underlying PTSD.

00:11:33.612 --> 00:11:36.398
In fact, a number of labs
in several different countries

00:11:36.398 --> 00:11:40.901
have begun small-scale clinical trials
of these memory-destroying treatments

00:11:40.901 --> 00:11:42.244
for PTSD

00:11:42.244 --> 00:11:44.745
and have found really promising results.

NOTE Paragraph

00:11:45.146 --> 00:11:48.733
Now, these studies need replication
on a larger scale,

00:11:48.733 --> 00:11:52.643
but they show the promise
of these memory-destroying treatments

00:11:52.643 --> 00:11:54.395
for PTSD.

00:11:54.862 --> 00:11:59.866
Maybe trauma memories do not need to be
the hell from which we cannot escape.

NOTE Paragraph

00:12:02.826 --> 00:12:06.245
Now, although this memory-destroying
approach holds great promise,

00:12:06.245 --> 00:12:08.562
that's not to say
that it's straightforward

00:12:08.562 --> 00:12:10.430
or without controversy.

00:12:10.697 --> 00:12:12.800
Is it ethical to destroy memories?

00:12:12.800 --> 00:12:15.735
What about things
like eyewitness testimony?

00:12:15.735 --> 00:12:18.062
What if you can't give someone Propranolol

00:12:18.062 --> 00:12:21.663
because it would interfere
with other medicines that they're taking?

NOTE Paragraph

00:12:21.663 --> 00:12:24.533
Well, with respect to ethics
and eyewitness testimony,

00:12:24.533 --> 00:12:27.702
I would say the important
point to remember

00:12:27.702 --> 00:12:29.794
is the finding from that human study.

00:12:29.794 --> 00:12:34.350
Because Propranolol is only acting
on the non-declarative emotional memory,

00:12:34.350 --> 00:12:37.819
it seems unlikely that it would affect
eyewitness testimony,

00:12:37.819 --> 00:12:40.411
which is based on declarative memory.

00:12:40.978 --> 00:12:43.413
Essentially, what these
memory-destroying treatments

00:12:43.413 --> 00:12:44.698
are aiming to do

00:12:44.698 --> 00:12:46.901
is to reduce the emotional memory,

00:12:46.901 --> 00:12:50.091
not get rid of the trauma
memory altogether.

00:12:50.644 --> 00:12:53.762
This should make the responses
of those with PTSD

00:12:53.762 --> 00:12:56.250
more like those who have
been through trauma

00:12:56.250 --> 00:12:58.241
and not developed PTSD

00:12:58.241 --> 00:13:02.628
than people who have never
experienced trauma in the first place.

00:13:02.628 --> 00:13:06.132
I think that most people would find that
more ethically acceptable

00:13:06.132 --> 00:13:09.595
than a treatment that aimed
to create some sort of spotless mind.

NOTE Paragraph

00:13:11.143 --> 00:13:13.077
What about Propranolol?

00:13:13.077 --> 00:13:15.163
You can't give Propranolol to everyone,

00:13:15.163 --> 00:13:19.658
and not everyone wants to take drugs
to treat mental health conditions.

00:13:19.658 --> 00:13:21.793
Well here Tetris could be useful.

00:13:22.828 --> 00:13:24.262
Yes, Tetris.

00:13:25.430 --> 00:13:27.398
Working with clinical collaborators,

00:13:27.398 --> 00:13:30.157
we've been looking at whether
behavior interventions

00:13:30.157 --> 00:13:33.860
can also interfere with
the re-consolidation of memories.

00:13:34.194 --> 00:13:35.846
Now, how would that work?

00:13:35.846 --> 00:13:38.249
Well, we know that
it's basically impossible

00:13:38.249 --> 00:13:40.190
to do two tasks at the same time

00:13:40.190 --> 00:13:43.559
if they both depend on
the same brain region for processing.

00:13:43.826 --> 00:13:46.413
Think trying to sing along to the radio

00:13:46.413 --> 00:13:48.521
while you're trying to compose an email.

00:13:48.521 --> 00:13:51.924
The processing for one
interferes with the other.

00:13:52.592 --> 00:13:55.110
Well, it's the same when
you retrieve the memory,

00:13:55.110 --> 00:13:56.512
especially in edit mode.

00:13:56.512 --> 00:14:00.004
If we take a highly visual symptom
like flashbacks and PTSD

00:14:00.004 --> 00:14:02.924
and get people to recall
the memory in edit mode,

00:14:02.924 --> 00:14:06.294
and then get them to do
a highly engaging visual task

00:14:06.294 --> 00:14:07.811
like playing Tetris,

00:14:07.811 --> 00:14:12.390
it should be possible to introduce
so much interfering information

00:14:12.390 --> 00:14:14.043
into that memory

00:14:14.043 --> 00:14:16.595
that it essentially becomes meaningless.

00:14:17.495 --> 00:14:19.087
That's the theory,

00:14:19.087 --> 00:14:22.522
and it's supported by data
from healthy human volunteers.

00:14:22.522 --> 00:14:26.609
Now, our volunteers watched
highly unpleasant films --

00:14:26.877 --> 00:14:30.436
so think eye surgery,
road traffic safety adverts,

00:14:30.436 --> 00:14:32.673
Scorsese's "The Big Shave."

00:14:32.673 --> 00:14:37.409
These trauma films produce
something like flashbacks

00:14:37.409 --> 00:14:40.953
in healthy volunteers
for about a week after viewing them.

00:14:41.203 --> 00:14:45.257
We found that getting people
to recall those memories,

00:14:45.257 --> 00:14:48.242
the worst moments
of those unpleasant films,

00:14:48.242 --> 00:14:51.019
and playing Tetris at the same time,

00:14:51.019 --> 00:14:54.556
massively reduced the frequency
of the flashbacks,

00:14:54.556 --> 00:14:58.733
and again the memory had to be
in edit mode for that to work.

NOTE Paragraph

00:14:59.951 --> 00:15:03.987
Now, my collaborators have since
taken this to clinical populations.

00:15:03.987 --> 00:15:06.690
They've tested this in survivors
of road traffic accidents

00:15:06.690 --> 00:15:09.966
and mothers who have had
emergency Caesarean sections,

00:15:09.966 --> 00:15:13.853
both types of trauma
that frequently lead to PTSD,

00:15:14.487 --> 00:15:17.373
and they found really promising
reductions in symptoms

00:15:17.373 --> 00:15:19.866
in both of those clinical cases.

NOTE Paragraph

00:15:21.617 --> 00:15:25.488
So although there is still much to learn
and procedures to optimize,

00:15:25.488 --> 00:15:28.948
these memory-destroying treatments
hold great promise

00:15:28.948 --> 00:15:32.177
for the treatment
of mental health disorders

00:15:32.177 --> 00:15:33.327
like PTSD.

00:15:33.327 --> 00:15:38.488
Maybe trauma memories do not need
to be a hell from which we cannot escape.

NOTE Paragraph

00:15:38.856 --> 00:15:40.907
I believe that this approach

00:15:40.907 --> 00:15:43.009
should allow those who want to

00:15:43.009 --> 00:15:45.262
to turn the page
on chapters of their lives

00:15:45.262 --> 00:15:47.937
that they would prefer
to never have experienced,

00:15:47.937 --> 00:15:50.673
and so improve our mental health.

00:15:50.958 --> 00:15:52.224
Thank you.

00:15:52.224 --> 00:15:53.492
(Applause)