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Dialogue: 0,0:00:00.00,0:00:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, as Chris pointed out, I study the human brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:04.00,0:00:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the functions and structure of the human brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:06.00,0:00:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I just want you to think for a minute about what this entails.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:10.00,0:00:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here is this mass of jelly, three-pound mass of jelly
Dialogue: 0,0:00:14.00,0:00:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can hold in the palm of your hand,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.00,0:00:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:21.00,0:00:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It can contemplate the meaning of infinity
Dialogue: 0,0:00:23.00,0:00:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it can contemplate itself contemplating on the meaning of infinity.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:28.00,0:00:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this peculiar recursive quality that we call self-awareness,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:33.00,0:00:37.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which I think is the holy grail of neuroscience, of neurology,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:37.00,0:00:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and hopefully, someday, we'll understand how that happens.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:40.00,0:00:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK, so how do you study this mysterious organ?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:43.00,0:00:47.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I mean, you have 100 billion nerve cells,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:47.00,0:00:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,little wisps of protoplasm, interacting with each other,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:50.00,0:00:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and from this activity emerges the whole spectrum of abilities
Dialogue: 0,0:00:54.00,0:00:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we call human nature and human consciousness.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.00,0:00:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How does this happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:58.00,0:01:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, there are many ways of approaching the functions of the human brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:01.00,0:01:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One approach, the one we use mainly,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:04.00,0:01:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is to look at patients with sustained damage to a small region of the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:09.00,0:01:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where there's been a genetic change in a small region of the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:11.00,0:01:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What then happens is not an across-the-board reduction
Dialogue: 0,0:01:15.00,0:01:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in all your mental capacities,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:17.00,0:01:20.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a sort of blunting of your cognitive ability.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:20.00,0:01:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What you get is a highly selective loss of one function,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:23.00,0:01:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with other functions being preserved intact,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.00,0:01:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and this gives you some confidence in asserting
Dialogue: 0,0:01:27.00,0:01:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that that part of the brain is somehow involved in mediating that function.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.00,0:01:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you can then map function onto structure,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:33.00,0:01:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then find out what the circuitry's doing
Dialogue: 0,0:01:36.00,0:01:38.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to generate that particular function.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:38.00,0:01:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So that's what we're trying to do.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:40.00,0:01:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So let me give you a few striking examples of this.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:43.00,0:01:47.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, I'm giving you three examples, six minutes each, during this talk.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:47.00,0:01:51.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first example is an extraordinary syndrome called Capgras syndrome.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:51.00,0:01:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you look at the first slide there,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:53.00,0:01:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's the temporal lobes, frontal lobes, parietal lobes, OK --
Dialogue: 0,0:01:58.00,0:02:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the lobes that constitute the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:00.00,0:02:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if you look, tucked away inside the inner surface of the temporal lobes --
Dialogue: 0,0:02:04.00,0:02:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can't see it there --
Dialogue: 0,0:02:06.00,0:02:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is a little structure called the fusiform gyrus.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:08.00,0:02:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's been called the face area in the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:11.00,0:02:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because when it's damaged, you can no longer recognize people's faces.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:14.00,0:02:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can still recognize them from their voice
Dialogue: 0,0:02:16.00,0:02:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and say, "Oh yeah, that's Joe,"
Dialogue: 0,0:02:18.00,0:02:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but you can't look at their face and know who it is, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.00,0:02:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can't even recognize yourself in the mirror.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:23.00,0:02:26.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I mean, you know it's you because you wink and it winks,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:26.00,0:02:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you know it's a mirror,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:28.00,0:02:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but you don't really recognize yourself as yourself.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:31.00,0:02:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK. Now that syndrome is well known as caused by damage to the fusiform gyrus.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.00,0:02:38.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But there's another rare syndrome, so rare, in fact,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.00,0:02:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that very few physicians have heard about it, not even neurologists.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:42.00,0:02:44.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is called the Capgras delusion,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:44.00,0:02:47.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that is a patient, who's otherwise completely normal,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:47.00,0:02:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,has had a head injury, comes out of coma,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:50.00,0:02:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,otherwise completely normal, he looks at his mother
Dialogue: 0,0:02:53.00,0:02:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and says, "This looks exactly like my mother, this woman,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:56.00,0:02:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but she's an impostor.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:58.00,0:03:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,She's some other woman pretending to be my mother."
Dialogue: 0,0:03:00.00,0:03:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, why does this happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:03:02.00,0:03:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why would somebody -- and this person is perfectly lucid and intelligent
Dialogue: 0,0:03:05.00,0:03:07.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in all other respects, but when he sees his mother,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:07.00,0:03:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,his delusion kicks in and says, it's not mother.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:10.00,0:03:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, the most common interpretation of this,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:12.00,0:03:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which you find in all the psychiatry textbooks,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:14.00,0:03:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is a Freudian view, and that is that this chap --
Dialogue: 0,0:03:18.00,0:03:20.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the same argument applies to women, by the way,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:20.00,0:03:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but I'll just talk about guys.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:22.00,0:03:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When you're a little baby, a young baby,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:25.00,0:03:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you had a strong sexual attraction to your mother.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:27.00,0:03:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the so-called Oedipus complex of Freud.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:29.00,0:03:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'm not saying I believe this,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.00,0:03:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but this is the standard Freudian view.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:33.00,0:03:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, as you grow up, the cortex develops,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:36.00,0:03:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and inhibits these latent sexual urges towards your mother.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:40.00,0:03:44.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank God, or you would all be sexually aroused when you saw your mother.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:44.00,0:03:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then what happens is,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.00,0:03:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there's a blow to your head, damaging the cortex,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:48.00,0:03:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,allowing these latent sexual urges to emerge,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:52.00,0:03:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,flaming to the surface, and suddenly and inexplicably
Dialogue: 0,0:03:55.00,0:03:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you find yourself being sexually aroused by your mother.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:58.00,0:04:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you say, "My God, if this is my mom,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:00.00,0:04:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how come I'm being sexually turned on?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:02.00,0:04:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,She's some other woman. She's an impostor."
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.00,0:04:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's the only interpretation that makes sense to your damaged brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:08.00,0:04:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This has never made much sense to me, this argument.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:11.00,0:04:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's very ingenious, as all Freudian arguments are --
Dialogue: 0,0:04:14.00,0:04:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.00,0:04:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- but didn't make much sense because I have seen the same delusion,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:21.00,0:04:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a patient having the same delusion, about his pet poodle.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:23.00,0:04:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:04:24.00,0:04:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He'll say, "Doctor, this is not Fifi. It looks exactly like Fifi,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:29.00,0:04:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it's some other dog." Right?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:31.00,0:04:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, you try using the Freudian explanation there.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:33.00,0:04:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:04:34.00,0:04:38.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You'll start talking about the latent bestiality in all humans,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:38.00,0:04:41.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or some such thing, which is quite absurd, of course.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:41.00,0:04:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, what's really going on?
Dialogue: 0,0:04:43.00,0:04:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, to explain this curious disorder,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.00,0:04:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we look at the structure and functions of the normal visual pathways in the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.00,0:04:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Normally, visual signals come in, into the eyeballs,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:52.00,0:04:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,go to the visual areas in the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:54.00,0:04:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are, in fact, 30 areas in the back of your brain concerned with just vision,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:57.00,0:05:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and after processing all that, the message goes to a small structure
Dialogue: 0,0:05:00.00,0:05:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,called the fusiform gyrus, where you perceive faces.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:05.00,0:05:07.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are neurons there that are sensitive to faces.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:07.00,0:05:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can call it the face area of the brain, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:10.00,0:05:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I talked about that earlier.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.00,0:05:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, when that area's damaged, you lose the ability to see faces, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:16.00,0:05:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But from that area, the message cascades
Dialogue: 0,0:05:19.00,0:05:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into a structure called the amygdala in the limbic system,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.00,0:05:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the emotional core of the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:24.00,0:05:26.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that structure, called the amygdala,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:26.00,0:05:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,gauges the emotional significance of what you're looking at.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:28.00,0:05:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Is it prey? Is it predator? Is it mate?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:32.00,0:05:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or is it something absolutely trivial, like a piece of lint,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:34.00,0:05:38.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or a piece of chalk, or a -- I don't want to point to that, but --
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.00,0:05:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or a shoe, or something like that? OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:40.00,0:05:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Which you can completely ignore.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:42.00,0:05:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if the amygdala is excited, and this is something important,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:45.00,0:05:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the messages then cascade into the autonomic nervous system.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:48.00,0:05:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Your heart starts beating faster.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:50.00,0:05:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You start sweating to dissipate the heat that you're going to
Dialogue: 0,0:05:53.00,0:05:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,create from muscular exertion.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.00,0:05:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that's fortunate, because we can put two electrodes on your palm
Dialogue: 0,0:05:59.00,0:06:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and measure the change in skin resistance produced by sweating.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:03.00,0:06:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I can determine, when you're looking at something,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:05.00,0:06:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whether you're excited or whether you're aroused, or not, OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:09.00,0:06:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I'll get to that in a minute.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:11.00,0:06:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So my idea was, when this chap looks at an object, when he looks at his --
Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.00,0:06:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,any object for that matter, it goes to the visual areas and,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:19.00,0:06:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,however, and it's processed in the fusiform gyrus,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:22.00,0:06:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you recognize it as a pea plant, or a table,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:25.00,0:06:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or your mother, for that matter, OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:27.00,0:06:30.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then the message cascades into the amygdala,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:30.00,0:06:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then goes down the autonomic nervous system.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:32.00,0:06:37.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But maybe, in this chap, that wire that goes from the amygdala to the limbic system,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:37.00,0:06:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the emotional core of the brain, is cut by the accident.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:40.00,0:06:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So because the fusiform is intact,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:42.00,0:06:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the chap can still recognize his mother,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:45.00,0:06:47.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and says, "Oh yeah, this looks like my mother."
Dialogue: 0,0:06:47.00,0:06:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But because the wire is cut to the emotional centers,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:50.00,0:06:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he says, "But how come, if it's my mother, I don't experience a warmth?"
Dialogue: 0,0:06:54.00,0:06:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or terror, as the case may be? Right?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:56.00,0:06:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:06:57.00,0:07:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And therefore, he says, "How do I account for this inexplicable lack of emotions?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:03.00,0:07:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This can't be my mother.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:05.00,0:07:07.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's some strange woman pretending to be my mother."
Dialogue: 0,0:07:07.00,0:07:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How do you test this?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:09.00,0:07:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, what you do is, if you take any one of you here, and put you in front of a screen,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:11.00,0:07:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and measure your galvanic skin response,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:14.00,0:07:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and show pictures on the screen,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:16.00,0:07:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I can measure how you sweat when you see an object,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:19.00,0:07:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like a table or an umbrella. Of course, you don't sweat.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.00,0:07:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If I show you a picture of a lion, or a tiger, or a pinup, you start sweating, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:27.00,0:07:30.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And, believe it or not, if I show you a picture of your mother --
Dialogue: 0,0:07:30.00,0:07:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'm talking about normal people -- you start sweating.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:32.00,0:07:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You don't even have to be Jewish.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:34.00,0:07:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:07:36.00,0:07:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, what happens if you show this patient?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:40.00,0:07:44.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You take the patient and show him pictures on the screen
Dialogue: 0,0:07:44.00,0:07:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and measure his galvanic skin response.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:46.00,0:07:51.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Tables and chairs and lint, nothing happens, as in normal people,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:51.00,0:07:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but when you show him a picture of his mother,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:53.00,0:07:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the galvanic skin response is flat.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.00,0:07:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's no emotional reaction to his mother,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:57.00,0:08:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because that wire going from the visual areas to the emotional centers is cut.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:02.00,0:08:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So his vision is normal because the visual areas are normal,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.00,0:08:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,his emotions are normal -- he'll laugh, he'll cry, so on and so forth --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:08.00,0:08:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but the wire from vision to emotions is cut
Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.00,0:08:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and therefore he has this delusion that his mother is an impostor.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.00,0:08:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a lovely example of the sort of thing we do:
Dialogue: 0,0:08:17.00,0:08:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,take a bizarre, seemingly incomprehensible, neural psychiatric syndrome
Dialogue: 0,0:08:21.00,0:08:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and say that the standard Freudian view is wrong,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:23.00,0:08:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that, in fact, you can come up with a precise explanation
Dialogue: 0,0:08:27.00,0:08:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in terms of the known neural anatomy of the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:29.00,0:08:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By the way, if this patient then goes,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:31.00,0:08:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and mother phones from an adjacent room -- phones him --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:36.00,0:08:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he picks up the phone, and he says, "Wow, mom, how are you? Where are you?"
Dialogue: 0,0:08:40.00,0:08:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's no delusion through the phone.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.00,0:08:44.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Then, she approaches him after an hour, he says, "Who are you?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:44.00,0:08:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You look just like my mother." OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:46.00,0:08:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The reason is there's a separate pathway
Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.00,0:08:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,going from the hearing centers in the brain to the emotional centers,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:52.00,0:08:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's not been cut by the accident.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:54.00,0:08:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this explains why through the phone he recognizes his mother, no problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:59.00,0:09:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When he sees her in person, he says it's an impostor.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:02.00,0:09:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK, how is all this complex circuitry set up in the brain?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:06.00,0:09:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Is it nature, genes, or is it nurture?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:09.00,0:09:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we approach this problem
Dialogue: 0,0:09:11.00,0:09:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by considering another curious syndrome called phantom limb.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:15.00,0:09:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And you all know what a phantom limb is.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:17.00,0:09:20.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When an arm is amputated, or a leg is amputated, for gangrene,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:20.00,0:09:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or you lose it in war -- for example, in the Iraq war,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:22.00,0:09:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's now a serious problem --
Dialogue: 0,0:09:24.00,0:09:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you continue to vividly feel the presence of that missing arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:28.00,0:09:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's called a phantom arm or a phantom leg.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:31.00,0:09:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, you can get a phantom with almost any part of the body.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:33.00,0:09:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Believe it or not, even with internal viscera.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:36.00,0:09:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I've had patients with the uterus removed -- hysterectomy --
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.00,0:09:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who have a phantom uterus, including phantom menstrual cramps
Dialogue: 0,0:09:45.00,0:09:47.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at the appropriate time of the month.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.00,0:09:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And in fact, one student asked me the other day,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:49.00,0:09:51.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Do they get phantom PMS?"
Dialogue: 0,0:09:51.00,0:09:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:09:52.00,0:09:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A subject ripe for scientific enquiry, but we haven't pursued that.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:56.00,0:09:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK, now the next question is,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.00,0:10:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what can you learn about phantom limbs by doing experiments?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.00,0:10:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the things we've found was,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:04.00,0:10:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about half the patients with phantom limbs
Dialogue: 0,0:10:06.00,0:10:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,claim that they can move the phantom.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:08.00,0:10:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It'll pat his brother on the shoulder,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:10.00,0:10:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it'll answer the phone when it rings, it'll wave goodbye.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:12.00,0:10:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These are very compelling, vivid sensations.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:15.00,0:10:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The patient's not delusional.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:17.00,0:10:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He knows that the arm is not there,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.00,0:10:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but, nevertheless, it's a compelling sensory experience for the patient.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:22.00,0:10:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But however, about half the patients, this doesn't happen.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:25.00,0:10:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The phantom limb -- they'll say, "But doctor, the phantom limb is paralyzed.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:29.00,0:10:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's fixed in a clenched spasm and it's excruciatingly painful.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:32.00,0:10:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If only I could move it, maybe the pain will be relieved."
Dialogue: 0,0:10:35.00,0:10:38.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, why would a phantom limb be paralyzed?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:38.00,0:10:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It sounds like an oxymoron.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:40.00,0:10:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But when we were looking at the case sheets, what we found was,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:43.00,0:10:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these people with the paralyzed phantom limbs,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:45.00,0:10:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the original arm was paralyzed because of the peripheral nerve injury.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:49.00,0:10:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The actual nerve supplying the arm was severed,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:52.00,0:10:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was cut, by say, a motorcycle accident.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:54.00,0:10:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the patient had an actual arm, which is painful,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:57.00,0:11:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a sling for a few months or a year, and then,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:01.00,0:11:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a misguided attempt to get rid of the pain in the arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:04.00,0:11:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the surgeon amputates the arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:06.00,0:11:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then you get a phantom arm with the same pains, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:10.00,0:11:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this is a serious clinical problem.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:12.00,0:11:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Patients become depressed.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:14.00,0:11:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Some of them are driven to suicide, OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:16.00,0:11:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, how do you treat this syndrome?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.00,0:11:20.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, why do you get a paralyzed phantom limb?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:20.00,0:11:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When I looked at the case sheet, I found that they had an actual arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:24.00,0:11:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the nerves supplying the arm had been cut,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:27.00,0:11:30.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the actual arm had been paralyzed,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:30.00,0:11:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and lying in a sling for several months before the amputation,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:34.00,0:11:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and this pain then gets carried over into the phantom itself.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:40.00,0:11:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why does this happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.00,0:11:44.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When the arm was intact, but paralyzed,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:44.00,0:11:47.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the brain sends commands to the arm, the front of the brain, saying, "Move,"
Dialogue: 0,0:11:47.00,0:11:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it's getting visual feedback saying, "No."
Dialogue: 0,0:11:49.00,0:11:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Move. No. Move. No. Move. No.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:53.00,0:11:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And this gets wired into the circuitry of the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:56.00,0:11:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we call this learned paralysis, OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:59.00,0:12:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The brain learns, because of this Hebbian, associative link,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:03.00,0:12:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that the mere command to move the arm
Dialogue: 0,0:12:06.00,0:12:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,creates a sensation of a paralyzed arm.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:08.00,0:12:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then, when you've amputated the arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:10.00,0:12:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,this learned paralysis carries over into your body image
Dialogue: 0,0:12:14.00,0:12:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and into your phantom, OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:17.00,0:12:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, how do you help these patients?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:19.00,0:12:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How do you unlearn the learned paralysis,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.00,0:12:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so you can relieve him of this excruciating, clenching spasm
Dialogue: 0,0:12:25.00,0:12:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the phantom arm?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:27.00,0:12:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, we said, what if you now send the command to the phantom,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:32.00,0:12:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but give him visual feedback that it's obeying his command, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:36.00,0:12:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Maybe you can relieve the phantom pain, the phantom cramp.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:39.00,0:12:41.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How do you do that? Well, virtual reality.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:41.00,0:12:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But that costs millions of dollars.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:43.00,0:12:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, I hit on a way of doing this for three dollars,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:46.00,0:12:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but don't tell my funding agencies.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:48.00,0:12:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:12:49.00,0:12:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK? What you do is you create what I call a mirror box.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:53.00,0:12:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have a cardboard box with a mirror in the middle,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.00,0:12:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then you put the phantom -- so my first patient, Derek, came in.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:59.00,0:13:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He had his arm amputated 10 years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:02.00,0:13:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He had a brachial avulsion, so the nerves were cut
Dialogue: 0,0:13:05.00,0:13:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the arm was paralyzed, lying in a sling for a year, and then the arm was amputated.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:09.00,0:13:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He had a phantom arm, excruciatingly painful, and he couldn't move it.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:11.00,0:13:13.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was a paralyzed phantom arm.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:13.00,0:13:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So he came there, and I gave him a mirror like that, in a box,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:17.00,0:13:20.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which I call a mirror box, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:20.00,0:13:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the patient puts his phantom left arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:23.00,0:13:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is clenched and in spasm, on the left side of the mirror,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:25.00,0:13:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the normal hand on the right side of the mirror,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.00,0:13:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and makes the same posture, the clenched posture,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:31.00,0:13:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and looks inside the mirror. And what does he experience?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:34.00,0:13:37.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He looks at the phantom being resurrected,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:37.00,0:13:41.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because he's looking at the reflection of the normal arm in the mirror,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:41.00,0:13:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it looks like this phantom has been resurrected.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:43.00,0:13:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Now," I said, "now, look, wiggle your phantom --
Dialogue: 0,0:13:46.00,0:13:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,your real fingers, or move your real fingers while looking in the mirror."
Dialogue: 0,0:13:50.00,0:13:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He's going to get the visual impression that the phantom is moving, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:54.00,0:13:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's obvious, but the astonishing thing is,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:56.00,0:13:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the patient then says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.00,0:14:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the pain, the clenching spasm, is relieved."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:01.00,0:14:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And remember, my first patient who came in --
Dialogue: 0,0:14:04.00,0:14:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:05.00,0:14:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- thank you. (Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:09.00,0:14:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,My first patient came in, and he looked in the mirror,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:12.00,0:14:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I said, "Look at your reflection of your phantom."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:15.00,0:14:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he started giggling, he says, "I can see my phantom."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:17.00,0:14:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But he's not stupid. He knows it's not real.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:19.00,0:14:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He knows it's a mirror reflection,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:21.00,0:14:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it's a vivid sensory experience.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:23.00,0:14:26.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, I said, "Move your normal hand and phantom."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:26.00,0:14:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He said, "Oh, I can't move my phantom. You know that. It's painful."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:28.00,0:14:30.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I said, "Move your normal hand."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:30.00,0:14:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he says, "Oh my God, my phantom is moving again. I don't believe this!
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.00,0:14:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And my pain is being relieved." OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:35.00,0:14:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And then I said, "Close your eyes."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:36.00,0:14:38.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He closes his eyes.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:38.00,0:14:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"And move your normal hand."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:39.00,0:14:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Oh, nothing. It's clenched again."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:40.00,0:14:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"OK, open your eyes."
Dialogue: 0,0:14:42.00,0:14:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"Oh my God, oh my God, it's moving again!"
Dialogue: 0,0:14:43.00,0:14:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, he was like a kid in a candy store.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.00,0:14:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, I said, OK, this proves my theory about learned paralysis
Dialogue: 0,0:14:50.00,0:14:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and the critical role of visual input,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:52.00,0:14:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but I'm not going to get a Nobel Prize
Dialogue: 0,0:14:54.00,0:14:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for getting somebody to move his phantom limb.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.00,0:14:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:57.00,0:14:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:14:58.00,0:15:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a completely useless ability, if you think about it.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:01.00,0:15:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:15:02.00,0:15:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But then I started realizing, maybe other kinds of paralysis
Dialogue: 0,0:15:06.00,0:15:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that you see in neurology, like stroke, focal dystonias --
Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.00,0:15:13.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there may be a learned component to this,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:13.00,0:15:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which you can overcome with the simple device of using a mirror.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:16.00,0:15:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, I said, "Look, Derek" --
Dialogue: 0,0:15:18.00,0:15:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,well, first of all, the guy can't just go around carrying a mirror to alleviate his pain --
Dialogue: 0,0:15:21.00,0:15:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I said, "Look, Derek, take it home and practice with it for a week or two.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:25.00,0:15:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Maybe, after a period of practice,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:27.00,0:15:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you can dispense with the mirror, unlearn the paralysis,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:29.00,0:15:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and start moving your paralyzed arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:31.00,0:15:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then, relieve yourself of pain."
Dialogue: 0,0:15:33.00,0:15:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So he said OK, and he took it home.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.00,0:15:37.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I said, "Look, it's, after all, two dollars. Take it home."
Dialogue: 0,0:15:37.00,0:15:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, he took it home, and after two weeks, he phones me,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:40.00,0:15:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and he said, "Doctor, you're not going to believe this."
Dialogue: 0,0:15:42.00,0:15:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I said, "What?"
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.00,0:15:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He said, "It's gone."
Dialogue: 0,0:15:45.00,0:15:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I said, "What's gone?"
Dialogue: 0,0:15:46.00,0:15:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I thought maybe the mirror box was gone.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:48.00,0:15:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:15:49.00,0:15:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He said, "No, no, no, you know this phantom I've had for the last 10 years?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:52.00,0:15:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's disappeared."
Dialogue: 0,0:15:54.00,0:15:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I said -- I got worried, I said, my God,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:56.00,0:15:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I mean I've changed this guy's body image,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:58.00,0:16:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what about human subjects, ethics and all of that?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:01.00,0:16:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I said, "Derek, does this bother you?"
Dialogue: 0,0:16:03.00,0:16:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He said, "No, last three days, I've not had a phantom arm
Dialogue: 0,0:16:06.00,0:16:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and therefore no phantom elbow pain, no clenching,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:09.00,0:16:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,no phantom forearm pain, all those pains are gone away.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:12.00,0:16:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the problem is I still have my phantom fingers dangling from the shoulder,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:16.00,0:16:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and your box doesn't reach."
Dialogue: 0,0:16:18.00,0:16:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:16:19.00,0:16:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"So, can you change the design and put it on my forehead,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:22.00,0:16:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so I can, you know, do this and eliminate my phantom fingers?"
Dialogue: 0,0:16:25.00,0:16:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He thought I was some kind of magician.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:27.00,0:16:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, why does this happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:28.00,0:16:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's because the brain is faced with tremendous sensory conflict.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:31.00,0:16:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's getting messages from vision saying the phantom is back.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:34.00,0:16:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,On the other hand, there's no appropriate reception,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:36.00,0:16:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,muscle signals saying that there is no arm, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:40.00,0:16:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And your motor command saying there is an arm,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:42.00,0:16:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and, because of this conflict, the brain says, to hell with it,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:45.00,0:16:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there is no phantom, there is no arm, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:16:48.00,0:16:50.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It goes into a sort of denial -- negates the signals.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:50.00,0:16:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And when the arm disappears, the bonus is, the pain disappears
Dialogue: 0,0:16:54.00,0:16:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because you can't have disembodied pain floating out there, in space.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:58.00,0:17:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, that's the bonus.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:00.00,0:17:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, this technique has been tried on dozens of patients
Dialogue: 0,0:17:02.00,0:17:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by other groups in Helsinki,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:04.00,0:17:07.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so it may prove to be valuable as a treatment for phantom pain,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:07.00,0:17:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and indeed, people have tried it for stroke rehabilitation.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:09.00,0:17:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Stroke you normally think of as damage to the fibers,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:12.00,0:17:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,nothing you can do about it.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.00,0:17:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, it turns out some component of stroke paralysis is also learned paralysis,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:19.00,0:17:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and maybe that component can be overcome using mirrors.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:22.00,0:17:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This has also gone through clinical trials,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:24.00,0:17:26.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,helping lots and lots of patients.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:26.00,0:17:30.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK, let me switch gears now to the third part of my talk,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:30.00,0:17:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is about another curious phenomenon called synesthesia.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:34.00,0:17:37.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This was discovered by Francis Galton in the nineteenth century.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:37.00,0:17:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He was a cousin of Charles Darwin.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:39.00,0:17:41.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He pointed out that certain people in the population,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:41.00,0:17:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,who are otherwise completely normal, had the following peculiarity:
Dialogue: 0,0:17:45.00,0:17:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,every time they see a number, it's colored.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:48.00,0:17:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Five is blue, seven is yellow, eight is chartreuse,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:52.00,0:17:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,nine is indigo, OK?
Dialogue: 0,0:17:54.00,0:17:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Bear in mind, these people are completely normal in other respects.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:57.00,0:18:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or C sharp -- sometimes, tones evoke color.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:00.00,0:18:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,C sharp is blue, F sharp is green,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:03.00,0:18:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,another tone might be yellow, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:06.00,0:18:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why does this happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:08.00,0:18:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is called synesthesia. Galton called it synesthesia,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:10.00,0:18:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a mingling of the senses.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:12.00,0:18:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In us, all the senses are distinct.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:14.00,0:18:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These people muddle up their senses.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:16.00,0:18:17.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why does this happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:17.00,0:18:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the two aspects of this problem are very intriguing.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:19.00,0:18:21.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Synesthesia runs in families,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:21.00,0:18:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so Galton said this is a hereditary basis, a genetic basis.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:24.00,0:18:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Secondly, synesthesia is about -- and this is what gets me to my point
Dialogue: 0,0:18:28.00,0:18:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about the main theme of this lecture, which is about creativity --
Dialogue: 0,0:18:31.00,0:18:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,synesthesia is eight times more common among artists, poets, novelists
Dialogue: 0,0:18:36.00,0:18:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and other creative people than in the general population.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:39.00,0:18:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why would that be?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:40.00,0:18:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'm going to answer that question.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:42.00,0:18:44.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's never been answered before.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:44.00,0:18:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK, what is synesthesia? What causes it?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:45.00,0:18:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, there are many theories.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:46.00,0:18:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One theory is they're just crazy.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:48.00,0:18:51.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, that's not really a scientific theory, so we can forget about it.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:51.00,0:18:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another theory is they are acid junkies and potheads, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:18:55.00,0:18:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, there may be some truth to this,
Dialogue: 0,0:18:57.00,0:18:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it's much more common here in the Bay Area than in San Diego.
Dialogue: 0,0:18:59.00,0:19:00.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:19:00.00,0:19:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK. Now, the third theory is that --
Dialogue: 0,0:19:03.00,0:19:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,well, let's ask ourselves what's really going on in synesthesia. All right?
Dialogue: 0,0:19:08.00,0:19:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, we found that the color area and the number area
Dialogue: 0,0:19:11.00,0:19:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are right next to each other in the brain, in the fusiform gyrus.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:14.00,0:19:16.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we said, there's some accidental cross wiring
Dialogue: 0,0:19:16.00,0:19:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,between color and numbers in the brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:19.00,0:19:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, every time you see a number, you see a corresponding color,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:22.00,0:19:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's why you get synesthesia.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:24.00,0:19:26.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now remember -- why does this happen?
Dialogue: 0,0:19:26.00,0:19:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why would there be crossed wires in some people?
Dialogue: 0,0:19:28.00,0:19:30.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Remember I said it runs in families?
Dialogue: 0,0:19:30.00,0:19:32.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That gives you the clue.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:32.00,0:19:34.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And that is, there is an abnormal gene,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:34.00,0:19:37.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a mutation in the gene that causes this abnormal cross wiring.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:37.00,0:19:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In all of us, it turns out
Dialogue: 0,0:19:39.00,0:19:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we are born with everything wired to everything else.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:43.00,0:19:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, every brain region is wired to every other region,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:46.00,0:19:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and these are trimmed down to create
Dialogue: 0,0:19:48.00,0:19:51.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the characteristic modular architecture of the adult brain.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:51.00,0:19:53.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, if there's a gene causing this trimming
Dialogue: 0,0:19:53.00,0:19:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and if that gene mutates,
Dialogue: 0,0:19:55.00,0:19:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then you get deficient trimming between adjacent brain areas.
Dialogue: 0,0:19:58.00,0:20:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if it's between number and color, you get number-color synesthesia.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:01.00,0:20:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If it's between tone and color, you get tone-color synesthesia.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:04.00,0:20:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So far, so good.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:06.00,0:20:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, what if this gene is expressed everywhere in the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:08.00,0:20:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so everything is cross-connected?
Dialogue: 0,0:20:09.00,0:20:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, think about what artists, novelists and poets have in common,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:15.00,0:20:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the ability to engage in metaphorical thinking,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:18.00,0:20:20.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,linking seemingly unrelated ideas,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:20.00,0:20:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,such as, "It is the east, and Juliet is the Sun."
Dialogue: 0,0:20:23.00,0:20:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, you don't say, Juliet is the sun,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:25.00,0:20:27.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,does that mean she's a glowing ball of fire?
Dialogue: 0,0:20:27.00,0:20:30.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I mean, schizophrenics do that, but it's a different story, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:20:30.00,0:20:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Normal people say, she's warm like the sun,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:33.00,0:20:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,she's radiant like the sun, she's nurturing like the sun.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:35.00,0:20:37.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Instantly, you've found the links.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:37.00,0:20:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, if you assume that this greater cross wiring
Dialogue: 0,0:20:40.00,0:20:43.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and concepts are also in different parts of the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:20:43.00,0:20:46.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then it's going to create a greater propensity
Dialogue: 0,0:20:46.00,0:20:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,towards metaphorical thinking and creativity
Dialogue: 0,0:20:49.00,0:20:51.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in people with synesthesia.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:51.00,0:20:54.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And, hence, the eight times more common incidence of synesthesia
Dialogue: 0,0:20:54.00,0:20:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,among poets, artists and novelists.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:56.00,0:20:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK, it's a very phrenological view of synesthesia.
Dialogue: 0,0:20:59.00,0:21:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The last demonstration -- can I take one minute?
Dialogue: 0,0:21:01.00,0:21:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:21:03.00,0:21:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,OK. I'm going to show you that you're all synesthetes, but you're in denial about it.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:08.00,0:21:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's what I call Martian alphabet. Just like your alphabet,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:12.00,0:21:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A is A, B is B, C is C.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:15.00,0:21:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Different shapes for different phonemes, right?
Dialogue: 0,0:21:18.00,0:21:20.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here, you've got Martian alphabet.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:20.00,0:21:22.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of them is Kiki, one of them is Buba.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:22.00,0:21:24.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Which one is Kiki and which one is Buba?
Dialogue: 0,0:21:24.00,0:21:26.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How many of you think that's Kiki and that's Buba? Raise your hands.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:26.00,0:21:28.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, it's one or two mutants.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:28.00,0:21:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:21:29.00,0:21:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How many of you think that's Buba, that's Kiki? Raise your hands.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:31.00,0:21:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ninety-nine percent of you.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:33.00,0:21:35.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, none of you is a Martian. How did you do that?
Dialogue: 0,0:21:35.00,0:21:40.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's because you're all doing a cross-model synesthetic abstraction,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:40.00,0:21:44.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,meaning you're saying that that sharp inflection -- ki-ki,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:44.00,0:21:49.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in your auditory cortex, the hair cells being excited -- Kiki,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:49.00,0:21:52.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,mimics the visual inflection, sudden inflection of that jagged shape.
Dialogue: 0,0:21:52.00,0:21:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, this is very important, because what it's telling you
Dialogue: 0,0:21:55.00,0:21:57.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is your brain is engaging in a primitive --
Dialogue: 0,0:21:57.00,0:21:59.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's just -- it looks like a silly illusion,
Dialogue: 0,0:21:59.00,0:22:03.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but these photons in your eye are doing this shape,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:03.00,0:22:06.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and hair cells in your ear are exciting the auditory pattern,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:06.00,0:22:11.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but the brain is able to extract the common denominator.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:11.00,0:22:13.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a primitive form of abstraction,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:13.00,0:22:18.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we now know this happens in the fusiform gyrus of the brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:18.00,0:22:19.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because when that's damaged,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:19.00,0:22:23.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,these people lose the ability to engage in Buba Kiki,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:23.00,0:22:25.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they also lose the ability to engage in metaphor.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:25.00,0:22:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you ask this guy, what -- "all that glitters is not gold,"
Dialogue: 0,0:22:29.00,0:22:31.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,what does that mean?"
Dialogue: 0,0:22:31.00,0:22:33.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The patient says, "Well, if it's metallic and shiny, it doesn't mean it's gold.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:33.00,0:22:36.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You have to measure its specific gravity, OK?"
Dialogue: 0,0:22:36.00,0:22:39.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, they completely miss the metaphorical meaning.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:39.00,0:22:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, this area is about eight times the size in higher --
Dialogue: 0,0:22:42.00,0:22:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,especially in humans -- as in lower primates.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:45.00,0:22:48.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Something very interesting is going on here in the angular gyrus,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:48.00,0:22:51.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it's the crossroads between hearing, vision and touch,
Dialogue: 0,0:22:51.00,0:22:55.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it became enormous in humans. And something very interesting is going on.
Dialogue: 0,0:22:55.00,0:22:58.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I think it's a basis of many uniquely human abilities
Dialogue: 0,0:22:58.00,0:23:01.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like abstraction, metaphor and creativity.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:01.00,0:23:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All of these questions that philosophers have been studying for millennia,
Dialogue: 0,0:23:04.00,0:23:08.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we scientists can begin to explore by doing brain imaging,
Dialogue: 0,0:23:08.00,0:23:10.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and by studying patients and asking the right questions.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:10.00,0:23:12.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:12.00,0:23:13.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)
Dialogue: 0,0:23:13.00,0:23:14.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sorry about that.
Dialogue: 0,0:23:14.00,0:23:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)