[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:08.72,0:00:10.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we're here in the center of technology,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:10.73,0:00:14.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I just wanted to ask\Na simple question.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:14.03,0:00:17.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What was the greatest\Ntechnological discovery ever made,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:17.58,0:00:20.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the basis for all subsequent technology,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:20.88,0:00:22.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and when was it made?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:24.02,0:00:28.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The greatest technological breakthrough\Nof human beings is language,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:28.27,0:00:30.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,invented 2 million years ago
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.54,0:00:33.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the first and greatest information age
Dialogue: 0,0:00:33.69,0:00:36.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by Homo erectus, mom and dad.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.100,0:00:38.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:00:38.78,0:00:41.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus was one\Nof the most successful creatures
Dialogue: 0,0:00:41.72,0:00:43.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to ever walk the Earth.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:43.10,0:00:46.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They lived on this planet\Nfor nearly 2 million years.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:46.97,0:00:49.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We have so far lived on this planet
Dialogue: 0,0:00:49.21,0:00:53.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for a certain 200,000,\Nperhaps as many as 500,000.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.30,0:00:57.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we haven't lived a quarter of the time\Nthat Homo erectus lived on this planet.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:57.67,0:00:59.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus was a marvelous creature.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:59.49,0:01:03.22,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It had the greatest brain\Nthe world had ever seen,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:03.22,0:01:05.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe the universe had ever seen.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:05.40,0:01:10.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The range of size of the Homo erectus\Nbrain was about 950 cc,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:10.26,0:01:16.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,75% of the size of an adult\NHomo sapiens male
Dialogue: 0,0:01:16.08,0:01:19.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and roughly in the range\Nof many Homo sapiens females -
Dialogue: 0,0:01:19.90,0:01:23.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that proves to us\Nthat size doesn't matter.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:23.29,0:01:25.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:01:25.10,0:01:29.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Homo erectus brain and body\Nwere both phenomenal.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:29.98,0:01:31.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That was the first body -
Dialogue: 0,0:01:31.19,0:01:33.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus stood\Nabout as tall as we do.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:33.15,0:01:36.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They weighted probably around 150 pounds
Dialogue: 0,0:01:36.12,0:01:39.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were the first creatures\Nin the history of the universe
Dialogue: 0,0:01:39.13,0:01:41.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,capable of persistent hunting.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:41.42,0:01:46.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our bipedal gait enables us\Nto run long distances
Dialogue: 0,0:01:46.59,0:01:49.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and cool down more efficiently\Nthan quadrupeds.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:49.61,0:01:52.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, Homo erectus was actually\Nable to chase down its prey
Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.100,0:01:55.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,until the prey either\Ndied of heat exhaustion,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:55.90,0:01:59.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or Homo erectus beat it to death\Nwith a stone axe or a club.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:59.92,0:02:02.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus was a marvelous creature.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:03.34,0:02:05.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they had many accomplishments.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:05.17,0:02:10.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus made a variety of tools,\Nstarting with the Olduwan tools.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:10.26,0:02:13.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they kept these tools,\Nand they transported these tools,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:13.10,0:02:15.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they improved these tools,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:15.26,0:02:18.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so that they had an upgrade:\NAcheulean tools.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:18.27,0:02:21.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they upgraded this to Levallois tools.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.79,0:02:25.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And each tool was better\Nthan the one before.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:25.35,0:02:27.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But they weren't limited to stone tools.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:27.50,0:02:29.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus also made spears,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:29.99,0:02:34.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,wooden tools that we have found,\Nhundreds-of-thousands-year-old spears.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:34.05,0:02:35.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And they made two kinds of spears.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:35.70,0:02:39.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They made spears for throwing\Nand spears for thrusting.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:39.14,0:02:40.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What does a spear for thrusting mean?
Dialogue: 0,0:02:40.91,0:02:46.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It means you're a 5 foot 8 to 6 foot 1\NHomo erectus male, 150 pounds,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:46.67,0:02:49.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you run up and stick\Nthat spear into a mastodon.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:50.45,0:02:54.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,These were fierce creatures,\Nthese were brave creatures,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.68,0:02:57.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were extremely\Nintelligent creatures.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:57.34,0:02:59.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So tools were one\Nof the great accomplishments
Dialogue: 0,0:02:59.56,0:03:02.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that lets us know what kind of brain\Nthey were developing.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:02.90,0:03:07.36,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They also had representations of reality.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:08.16,0:03:12.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a 250,000 year-old
Dialogue: 0,0:03:12.32,0:03:16.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,partially naturally-formed and\Npartially artificially-formed by humans,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:16.90,0:03:18.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by Homo erectus, Venus.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:18.66,0:03:20.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's called the Venus of Berekhat Ram,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:20.99,0:03:24.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there's some evidence\Nthat it was dyed red in certain parts.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:24.86,0:03:28.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A shell found on the island of Java
Dialogue: 0,0:03:28.07,0:03:33.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with engravings on the shell\Nby Homo erectus.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:33.71,0:03:37.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus wasn't simply a toolmaker.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:37.27,0:03:38.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They were boat makers.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:38.99,0:03:42.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They traveled the oceans\N2 million years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:42.39,0:03:43.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How do we know this?
Dialogue: 0,0:03:43.77,0:03:46.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, the first island that we find\Nevidence of Homo erectus
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.59,0:03:49.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is the island of Flores in Indonesia,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:49.66,0:03:53.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which would have been about\Na 24-mile boat trip, visible from land,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:53.05,0:03:54.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about the size of the English Channel,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:54.97,0:03:57.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,except that Flores was, then and now,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:57.75,0:04:02.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,surrounded by the most treacherous\Nand strongest ocean currents in the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:02.96,0:04:06.41,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They couldn't have swum to Flores.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:07.43,0:04:09.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They got there by boat.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:09.77,0:04:13.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is actually the island of Flores,\Nand, it doesn't, you know -
Dialogue: 0,0:04:13.93,0:04:16.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I don't think Homo erectus\Nlooked quite like that, but ...
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.68,0:04:18.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:04:18.88,0:04:22.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Archaeologists have\Nactually tried to simulate
Dialogue: 0,0:04:22.24,0:04:25.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the voyages of Homo Erectus\Nby making rafts
Dialogue: 0,0:04:25.70,0:04:28.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,similar to the kinds of rafts\Nthat Homo erectus would have made.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:28.70,0:04:32.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know because of the amount of islands\Nthat we find colonies of Homo erectus
Dialogue: 0,0:04:32.68,0:04:35.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that their getting to these islands\Nwas more than coincidence.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:35.58,0:04:40.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know by the size of the colonies\Nthey must have had there
Dialogue: 0,0:04:40.58,0:04:44.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that multiple individuals\Nhad to arrive about the same time
Dialogue: 0,0:04:44.01,0:04:45.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to start these colonies,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:45.87,0:04:48.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we know therefore\Nthat they had to plan.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:48.87,0:04:50.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So one was Flores.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:50.15,0:04:52.34,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Another was Socotra, then and now,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:52.34,0:04:57.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,150 miles into the ocean\Nfrom the nearest land,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:57.37,0:04:59.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where we find Homo erectus colonies.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:59.58,0:05:01.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That requires imagination,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:01.96,0:05:05.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that sailing to something in exploration,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:05.75,0:05:07.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and Homo erectus seems to do this.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:07.53,0:05:12.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's also evidence\Nthat Homo erectus had colonies on Crete.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:12.33,0:05:14.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So Homo erectus was a seafarer,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:14.51,0:05:16.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus was a toolmaker,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:16.72,0:05:20.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus was\Na very intelligent person,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:20.48,0:05:22.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but they did more than this.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.61,0:05:27.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus also\Ntraveled the world by land.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:27.54,0:05:30.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus evolved\N1.9 million years ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:30.40,0:05:33.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By 1.7 million years ago,\Nwhich is not very long,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:33.68,0:05:35.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were already in Beijing,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:35.37,0:05:36.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were in Indonesia,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:36.76,0:05:38.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were in the Middle East,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:38.26,0:05:39.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were in Europe.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:39.92,0:05:41.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus traveled -
Dialogue: 0,0:05:41.06,0:05:44.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I won't be surprised when\Nthe newspaper finally announces
Dialogue: 0,0:05:44.03,0:05:47.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that we have evidence\Nof Homo erectus in California
Dialogue: 0,0:05:47.30,0:05:52.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because if they could walk to Beijing\Nin a short period of time,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:52.09,0:05:54.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it was just a little hop,\Nskip, and a jump
Dialogue: 0,0:05:54.35,0:05:57.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,up across the Bering Strait\Ndown into the New World.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:57.76,0:05:59.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Maybe they did, maybe they didn't.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:59.50,0:06:04.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But their abilities show that they\Nwere capable of a tremendous amount.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:04.80,0:06:08.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So now, it's not all good news,\Nthere were some deficiencies.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.99,0:06:12.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus had the vocal\Napparatus of a gorilla.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:13.22,0:06:15.66,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They couldn't have made\Nall the sounds that we make.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:15.66,0:06:19.70,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They would have had a range of sounds\Nmore like what a gorilla could make.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:20.30,0:06:23.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Is that a big deal when it comes\Nto language? Well, no, it isn't.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:23.76,0:06:27.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are many languages today\Nthat have less than twelve sounds,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:27.85,0:06:29.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,here's one:
Dialogue: 0,0:06:29.01,0:06:34.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Speaking in Pirahã)
Dialogue: 0,0:06:34.08,0:06:37.95,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's one of the languages I've worked on\Nin the Amazon over the past 40 years,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:37.95,0:06:42.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Pirahã, and it only has ten sounds\Nif you're a woman
Dialogue: 0,0:06:42.00,0:06:44.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and eleven sounds if you're a man.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:44.93,0:06:49.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And with eleven sounds, you can produce\Na fully functioning human language.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:49.02,0:06:51.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So was erectus capable of eleven sounds?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:51.87,0:06:54.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, they didn't even need\Nto be capable of eleven sounds.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:54.65,0:06:58.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can type anything you can communicate\Nin English into your computer.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:58.50,0:07:02.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can type it in Microsoft Word\Nor whatever program that you use,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:02.51,0:07:06.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and when you do that,\Nhow many letters does a computer use?
Dialogue: 0,0:07:06.46,0:07:11.80,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well ultimately, a computer only uses\Ntwo letters, two sounds: 0 and 1,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:13.25,0:07:15.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and with those sounds,\Nyou can communicate anything.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:15.76,0:07:17.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So erectus, theoretically,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:17.71,0:07:20.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,only needed to be able to make\Ntwo sounds to communicate.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:22.13,0:07:26.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our ancestors were the first\Nand only talking gorillas,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:27.85,0:07:30.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the anatomy that they had.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:30.26,0:07:32.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Their brains not only were smaller,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:32.68,0:07:35.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were somewhat slower\Nthan ours by the evidence,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:35.56,0:07:38.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,their childhood development\Nwas faster than ours,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:38.27,0:07:40.15,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is a disadvantage cognitively
Dialogue: 0,0:07:40.15,0:07:43.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because our children have\Nmore time to develop -
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.53,0:07:46.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think it's about 30 years now -
Dialogue: 0,0:07:46.07,0:07:47.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:07:47.94,0:07:51.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they are able to put into place\Nall sorts of cognitive mechanisms.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:51.50,0:07:54.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When I tell this joke in college,\Nnobody laughs, but ...
Dialogue: 0,0:07:54.98,0:07:56.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:07:56.52,0:07:58.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But we know.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:58.29,0:08:02.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So Homo erectus had\Nadvantages and disadvantages,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:02.10,0:08:05.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but the most important thing\Nis that none of the disadvantages
Dialogue: 0,0:08:05.01,0:08:08.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,would've kept it from language\Nand the accomplishments we see.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:08.02,0:08:11.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Right now, scientists are excavating\Na Homo erectus village,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:11.29,0:08:13.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,about 750,000 years old,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:13.46,0:08:17.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in Gesher Benot Ya'aqov\Nin modern-day Israel.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:17.25,0:08:21.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we find that this village\Nis organized hierarchically.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:21.05,0:08:24.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's a section of the village\Nfor processing animal products,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:24.07,0:08:26.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a section of the village\Nfor processing plant products,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.92,0:08:30.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,another section of the village\Nwhere we find evidence of the habitation.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:30.76,0:08:35.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, they not only built villages,\Nthey built them in a structured manner.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:35.23,0:08:37.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they were capable\Nof hierarchical thought,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:37.40,0:08:40.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they were capable of planning,\Nthey were capable of imagination.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:41.55,0:08:42.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What makes language?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.97,0:08:45.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What was lacking for them\Nto have language?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:45.00,0:08:48.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A language is just,\Nin essence, two things:
Dialogue: 0,0:08:48.49,0:08:50.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,symbols and grammar.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.77,0:08:54.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And how many symbols do you need,\Nand how much grammar do you need?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:54.08,0:08:55.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What's a symbol, first of all?
Dialogue: 0,0:08:55.85,0:08:57.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Charles Sanders Peirce,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:57.31,0:09:00.69,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a philosopher from the United States\Nwho lived over a hundred years ago,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:00.69,0:09:02.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,defined three kinds of signs:
Dialogue: 0,0:09:02.50,0:09:04.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Indexes, which are signs
Dialogue: 0,0:09:04.45,0:09:06.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that are physically connected\Nto what they represent.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:06.94,0:09:09.92,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, you go outside, you smell smoke,\Nyou know there's a fire.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:09.92,0:09:11.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Smoke is an index of fire.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:11.76,0:09:14.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see a footprint, that's an index.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:15.41,0:09:16.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the next sign -
Dialogue: 0,0:09:16.49,0:09:18.16,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, all animals need signs.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:18.16,0:09:22.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Our five senses evolved for us\Nto be able to read indexes.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:22.27,0:09:24.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Without indexes\Nand the ability to read them,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:24.49,0:09:26.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we can't function in the world.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:26.52,0:09:29.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The next kind of sign is an icon -
Dialogue: 0,0:09:29.00,0:09:32.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there's no physical connection,\Nbut there is a physical resemblance.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:32.38,0:09:37.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The figure of Berekhat Ram, the Venus,\Nthat I showed earlier, that is an icon.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:37.52,0:09:40.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The Mona Lisa is an icon.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:40.59,0:09:47.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The cross in Christianity started off\Nas an icon and has become a symbol.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.06,0:09:48.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So you get this.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:48.07,0:09:49.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, what is a symbol then?
Dialogue: 0,0:09:49.83,0:09:52.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The symbol is conventionally
Dialogue: 0,0:09:52.60,0:09:57.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a sign that is conventionally\Nor culturally connected to its meaning.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:57.18,0:10:01.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, take the number four: f-o-u-r,\Nor hold up my fingers "four."
Dialogue: 0,0:10:01.74,0:10:02.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That means what?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.75,0:10:06.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It means a cardinality of four,\Nwe have to keep talking in English,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:07.27,0:10:12.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but four is a culturally-determined form
Dialogue: 0,0:10:12.42,0:10:14.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a culturally-determined meaning.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:14.14,0:10:16.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Not all languages have mathematics.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:16.39,0:10:19.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Piraha, for example,\Ndoesn't have even the number one.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.09,0:10:22.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are no mathematical concepts\Nin that language whatsoever.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:22.27,0:10:25.24,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So math is a cultural discovery,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:25.24,0:10:27.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if not a cultural construct,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:27.20,0:10:31.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and not everyone has math in that sense.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:31.88,0:10:35.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So the symbols for math\Nare culturally determined.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:35.43,0:10:37.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Symbols are culturally determined.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:37.06,0:10:39.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The next thing we need\Nto have a language -
Dialogue: 0,0:10:39.47,0:10:41.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and here's a fascinating fact -
Dialogue: 0,0:10:41.72,0:10:46.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,When Peirce said that indexes come first,\Nor more simple, and then icons,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:46.05,0:10:47.37,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then symbols,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:47.37,0:10:51.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he inadvertently, indirectly predicted\Nexactly what we find
Dialogue: 0,0:10:51.77,0:10:53.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the archaeological record.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:53.74,0:10:55.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So indexes all creatures have.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:55.68,0:10:58.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those are 5 billion years old\Nor however long life's been on Earth,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:58.96,0:11:00.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,closer to 4 billion.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:00.23,0:11:02.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, when did the first icon,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:02.00,0:11:03.28,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the first image,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:03.28,0:11:05.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,appear in the archaeological record?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:05.42,0:11:07.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, we have to go back 3 million years,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:07.52,0:11:09.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is not that far back,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:09.51,0:11:11.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to Australopithecus africanus.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:11.62,0:11:13.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we find in a cave of Australopithecus,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:13.75,0:11:18.45,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the Makapansgat cave\Nof Australopithecus in South Africa,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:18.45,0:11:23.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a small, little two-inch by three-inch\Nstone called the Makapansgat pebble
Dialogue: 0,0:11:23.13,0:11:26.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or the Makapansgat manuport\Nbecause it was carried to the cave,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:26.85,0:11:30.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and some Australopithecus recognized\Non this little stone a human face.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:30.77,0:11:33.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It looks like the original\Nsmiley face T-shirt.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:34.51,0:11:38.01,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And Australopithecus\Nwas fascinated by this.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:38.26,0:11:41.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We know that because they\Ncarried it from miles away
Dialogue: 0,0:11:41.20,0:11:44.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and took it to their cave\Nand kept it there.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:44.65,0:11:46.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, it's possible it was a coincidence,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:46.56,0:11:48.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,maybe they got\Nit stuck between their toes.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.78,0:11:50.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But two inches by three inches
Dialogue: 0,0:11:50.60,0:11:53.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is a bit big for even\NAustralopithecus toes.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:53.43,0:11:56.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they seem to have carried it there\Nbecause of what it represented.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:56.67,0:11:58.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So first, we see icons -
Dialogue: 0,0:11:58.54,0:12:00.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,first, we see indexes,\Nthen we see icons,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:00.76,0:12:02.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and next we see symbols.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:02.72,0:12:04.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, what can a symbol be?
Dialogue: 0,0:12:05.19,0:12:06.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Think of a shovel.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:06.42,0:12:09.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Often when people talk about symbols\Nthey think of abstract art,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:09.42,0:12:12.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but abstract art\Nisn't necessary for symbols.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:12.52,0:12:13.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Think of a shovel.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:13.83,0:12:16.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A shovel is a tool,\Nbut when we see a shovel,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:16.73,0:12:18.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we think of labor,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:18.40,0:12:19.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we think of blisters,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:19.75,0:12:21.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we think of gardening,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:21.08,0:12:22.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we think of our family -
Dialogue: 0,0:12:22.85,0:12:24.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all sorts of memories.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:24.56,0:12:29.13,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The shovel becomes a symbol\Nfor a series of cultural values.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:29.37,0:12:35.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The tools that erectus used\Nwere easily understood as symbols.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:35.10,0:12:38.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the way that they were\Ntaken care of, they represented it.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:38.00,0:12:41.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, we find a special\Nhand axe, Excalibur,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:41.62,0:12:46.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a colored quartz hand axe\Nburied in an erectus burial site
Dialogue: 0,0:12:46.67,0:12:50.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that indicates that they saw in this tool,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.50,0:12:53.86,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as I'm saying, something symbolic.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:53.86,0:12:57.59,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, they had symbols,\Nthey had the capability for symbols,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:57.59,0:13:00.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they had planning,\Nthey had hierarchical reasoning,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:00.26,0:13:02.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they had ordered thought.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:02.68,0:13:04.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So they needed a grammar.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:04.11,0:13:05.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what kinds\Nof grammars are there?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:05.77,0:13:08.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, there is one popular\Ntheory of grammar
Dialogue: 0,0:13:08.60,0:13:10.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,by someone I will not mention,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:10.74,0:13:16.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but this particular theory of grammar\Nis a little more elaborate than we need.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:17.28,0:13:19.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I have identified three kinds of grammar
Dialogue: 0,0:13:19.38,0:13:21.51,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in my field research\Nover the last 40 years.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:21.51,0:13:26.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One I'll call G1, the next one is G2,\Nand the last one, very originally, is G3.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:27.23,0:13:29.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,G1 grammars are just\Ngrammars in linear order.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:29.89,0:13:31.91,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We have examples of this in English:
Dialogue: 0,0:13:31.91,0:13:34.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"You drink, you drive, you go to jail."
Dialogue: 0,0:13:34.57,0:13:37.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"No shirt, no shoes, no service."
Dialogue: 0,0:13:37.09,0:13:38.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's just words in order.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:38.99,0:13:41.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the next kind\Nof grammar, a G2 grammar -
Dialogue: 0,0:13:41.73,0:13:42.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and let me point out
Dialogue: 0,0:13:42.77,0:13:46.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that there are modern languages,\Nsuch as Riau of Indonesia and Pirahã,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:46.81,0:13:50.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in which serious psycholinguists\Nhave argued that their grammars
Dialogue: 0,0:13:50.73,0:13:53.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are this G1 type -\Njust words in linear order.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:53.85,0:13:56.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A G2 grammar has hierarchy,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:56.65,0:13:59.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so "If you drink and you drive,\Nthen you go to jail."
Dialogue: 0,0:13:59.91,0:14:02.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You take the words\Nand you make a larger sentence.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:02.26,0:14:05.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And a G3 grammar has\Nhierarchy and recursion:
Dialogue: 0,0:14:05.63,0:14:08.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"If you drink and drive\Nand know you shouldn't do that
Dialogue: 0,0:14:08.17,0:14:09.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because your wife's going to get upset
Dialogue: 0,0:14:09.98,0:14:12.26,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because her father told you\Nthe last time you did
Dialogue: 0,0:14:12.26,0:14:14.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,he was never going\Nto give you bond money again,"
Dialogue: 0,0:14:14.56,0:14:16.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and you can just keep on going.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:16.49,0:14:20.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Those kinds of grammars are found\Ncommonly in the world's languages,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:20.29,0:14:24.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but you can express anything\Nfrom a G3 grammar in a G1 grammar;
Dialogue: 0,0:14:24.61,0:14:26.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,mathematically they're all of equal power.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:26.73,0:14:29.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, once you have symbols\Nand a G1 grammar
Dialogue: 0,0:14:29.33,0:14:32.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you have language,\Nfull-blown human language.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.04,0:14:33.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We find those today.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:33.63,0:14:35.97,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Was Homo erectus capable of that?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:35.97,0:14:37.11,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yes, they were.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.11,0:14:40.57,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Did they show the kinds of communication,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:40.57,0:14:43.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,correction, cooperation, planning
Dialogue: 0,0:14:43.33,0:14:45.46,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that would have required human language?
Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.46,0:14:46.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Yes, they did.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:47.08,0:14:48.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,All animals communicate -
Dialogue: 0,0:14:48.52,0:14:50.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there's not a single animal\Nin the animal species
Dialogue: 0,0:14:50.85,0:14:52.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that doesn't communicate -
Dialogue: 0,0:14:52.09,0:14:56.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it still seems that only humans\Ncommunicate by means of language.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:56.10,0:15:00.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Only humans have elaborate,\Nsymbolic, grammatical systems
Dialogue: 0,0:15:00.17,0:15:02.32,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that allow us to communicate.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:02.32,0:15:04.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But is there anything\Nabout what we've said
Dialogue: 0,0:15:04.39,0:15:09.20,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that requires that grammars be a mutation?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:09.20,0:15:11.42,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or that grammars be innate?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:11.42,0:15:13.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or that grammars be an instinct?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:14.01,0:15:17.47,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Does it seem any more than\Nthat there is an instinct for chemistry,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:17.47,0:15:20.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or an instinct for building cars,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:20.30,0:15:22.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or an instinct for making burritos.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:22.50,0:15:25.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I can find making burritos\Nin my brain somewhere,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:25.23,0:15:26.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if you get into anatomy,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:26.82,0:15:29.94,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you could identify where\Nburritos are made in my brain,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:29.94,0:15:31.09,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where that knowledge is,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:31.09,0:15:32.72,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but that doesn't mean it's innate.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:32.72,0:15:35.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It just means that's where\Nit goes when I learn it,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.10,0:15:36.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for a variety of reasons.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:38.12,0:15:40.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So language, by all that we see,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:40.77,0:15:44.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,has been invented,\Nit has been developed over time.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:44.100,0:15:48.61,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So as soon as a culture gets hold\Nof language, it starts to change it.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:48.61,0:15:50.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Languages are always changing.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:50.92,0:15:54.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Sometimes they become more elaborate,\Nsometimes they become simpler.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:55.76,0:15:59.65,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Homo erectus started\Nthe process of language
Dialogue: 0,0:15:59.65,0:16:02.76,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through the accomplishments that they had,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:02.76,0:16:05.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through what we know about\Ntheir reasoning abilities,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:05.23,0:16:09.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and through the artifacts and villages
Dialogue: 0,0:16:09.05,0:16:13.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and evidence of voyages that they left\Nin the archaeological record.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:14.10,0:16:17.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Language started, if this is all correct -
Dialogue: 0,0:16:17.02,0:16:19.55,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I urge upon you the view that it is -
Dialogue: 0,0:16:19.55,0:16:23.90,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,if this is all correct, language started\Nthen 60,000 generations ago.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:23.90,0:16:25.82,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's one of the greatest breakthroughs,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:25.82,0:16:28.63,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the beginning of the information\Nage for humanity,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:28.63,0:16:32.30,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it enabled every other\Naccomplishment of our species.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:32.30,0:16:35.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And if we go back to this guy,\Nwe'll call him Johnny Erectus,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:36.55,0:16:39.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the sense of upright\Nas opposed to other senses.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:39.67,0:16:40.74,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And he is
Dialogue: 0,0:16:40.74,0:16:42.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,0:16:42.50,0:16:47.53,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the person who first spoke.
Dialogue: 0,0:16:47.53,0:16:50.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first person perhaps\Nwho said to someone else,
Dialogue: 0,0:16:50.49,0:16:51.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,"I love you."
Dialogue: 0,0:16:51.52,0:16:53.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or who said, "Let's go."
Dialogue: 0,0:16:53.50,0:16:55.78,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or, "I want that."
Dialogue: 0,0:16:57.29,0:17:00.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Imagine the possibilities\Nand the elaborations -
Dialogue: 0,0:17:00.17,0:17:02.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,60,000 generations of language.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:02.48,0:17:05.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,TED talks are an example
Dialogue: 0,0:17:05.23,0:17:08.87,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of an attempt to harnass\Nthe power of human language.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:09.13,0:17:11.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There is nothing more powerful\Non Earth than human language.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:11.93,0:17:14.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We still don't understand\Neverything about it,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:14.08,0:17:17.40,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but we know that it makes us who we are -
Dialogue: 0,0:17:17.40,0:17:20.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the ability to speak\Nand communicate with one another.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:20.95,0:17:24.49,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, as you leave TED this evening,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:24.49,0:17:28.19,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as you leave these talks and this day\Nthat we've spent together,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:28.36,0:17:30.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,use language, talk, and listen,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:30.64,0:17:34.07,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and appreciate the value\Nof this marvelous invention
Dialogue: 0,0:17:34.07,0:17:38.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that these talking gorillas,\NHomo erectus, our ancestors,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:38.05,0:17:39.100,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the first humans to walk the Earth,
Dialogue: 0,0:17:39.100,0:17:41.03,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,gave us.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:41.03,0:17:42.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:17:42.06,0:17:45.05,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)