[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'd like to introduce you \Nto an emerging area of science.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One that is still speculative,\Nbut hugely exciting.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's certainly one that's \Ngrowing very rapidly.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum biology asks\Na very simple question.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Does quantum mechanics, that weird\Nand wonderful, and powerful theory
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the subatomic world\Nof atoms and molecules
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that underpins so much of modern\Nphysics and chemistry, also play
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a role inside the living cell?
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In other words, are there processes,\Nmechanisms, phenomena in living organisms
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that can only be explained with a helping\Nhand from quantum mechanics.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, quantum biology isn't new.\NIt's been around since the early 1930s.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But its only in the last decade or so,\Nthat careful experiments
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in biochemistry labs, using spectroscopy\Nthat have shown clear, firm evidence
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that there are certain specific mechanisms\Nthat require quantum mechanics
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to explain them.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum biology brings together \Nquantum physicists, biochemists,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,molecular biologists.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a very interdisciplinary field.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I come from quantum physics.\NSo, I'm a nuclear physicist.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I've spent more than three decades trying \Nto get my head around quantum mechanics.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One of the founders of quantum \Nmechanics, Neil Bohr said,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If you're not astonished by it,\Nthen you haven't understood it.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, I sort of feel happy that I'm still\Nastonished by it and that's a good thing.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it means I study the very smallest\Nstructures in the universe.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The building blocks of reality.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we think about the scale of size,\Nstart with something, an everyday object
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,like the tennis ball, and just go down\Norders of magnitude and size.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,From the eye of a needle, down to a cell,\Ndown to a bacterium, down to an enzyme.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You eventually reach the nano world.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, nanotechnology may \Nbe a term you've heard of.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A nanometer is \Na billionth of a meter.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,My area is the atomic nucleus,\Nwhich is the tiny dot inside an atom.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's even smaller in scale.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the domain of quantum mechanics,\Nand physicists and chemists have had
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a long time to get used to it.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Biologists on the other hand\Nhave got off lightly, in my view.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They are very happy with their \Nballs-and-sticks models of molecules.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The balls are the atoms, the sticks\Nare the bonds between the atoms
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and when they can't build them\Nphysically in the lab,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,nowadays they have very powerful\Ncomputers that will simulate a huge model.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is a protein made up \Nof 100,000 atoms.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It doesn't really require much in the way \Nof quantum mechanics to explain it.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum mechanics was \Ndeveloped in the 1920s.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It is a set of beautiful and powerful \Nmathematical rules and ideas
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that explain the world\Nof the very small.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's a world that very different\Nfrom our everyday world
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,made up of trillions of atoms.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a world built on probability\Nand chance.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a fuzzy world.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a world of phantoms, where particles\Ncan also behave like spread out waves.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,If we imagine quantum mechanics\Nor quantum physics, then as
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the fundamental \Nfoundation of reality itself.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's not really surprising\Nthat we say quantum physics
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,underpins organic chemistry.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,After all, it gives us the rules\Nthat tells us the rules that tell us
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how the atoms fit together\Nto make organic molecules.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Organic chemistry, scaled up in complexity\Ngives us molecular biology,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which of course leads \Nto life itself.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, in a way, it's sort \Nof not surprising.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's almost trivial.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Say, well of course life ultimately\Nmust depend of quantum mechanics
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- so does everything else.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So does all inanimate matter, \Nmade up of trillions of atoms.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Ultimately, there's a quantum level\Nthat we know where we have to delve
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into this weridness.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But in everyday life, \Nwe can forget about it.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Because once you put together trillions \Nof atoms, that quantum weirdness
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just dissolves away.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum biology isn't about this.\NQuantum biology isn't this obvious.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Of course quantum mechanics underpins\Nlife at some molecular level.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum biology is about looking\Nfor the non-trivial, the counterintuitive
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,ideas in quantum mechanics and to see\Nif they do indeed play an important role
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in describing the processes of life.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here is my perfect example\Nof the counterintuitiveness
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the quantum world.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is the quantum skiier.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He seems to be intact, he seems\Nto be perfectly healthy.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And yet, he seems to have gone around\Nboth sides of that tree at the same time.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, if you saw some tracks like that\Nyou'd guess some sort of stunts of course.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But in the quantum world,\Nthis happens all the time.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Particles can multitask, they can be\Nin two places at once.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They can do more than\None thing at the same time.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Particles can behave\Nlike spread out waves.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's almost like magic.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Physicists and chemists have had\Nnearly a century of trying
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to get used to this weirdness.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I don't blame the biologists for not\Nhaving or wanting to learn
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,quantum mechanics.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see, this weirdness is very delicate\Nand we physicists work very hard
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to maintain it on our labs.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We sort of cool our system down\Nto near absolute zero,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We carry out our experiments \Nin vacuums, we try and isolate it
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from any external disturbance.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,That's very different from the warm,\Nmessy, noisy environment of a living cell.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Biology itself, if you think of molecular\Nbiology, seems to have done very well
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in describing all the processes of life,\Nin terms of chemistry.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Chemical reactions!
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And these are reductionist, deterministic\Nchemical reactions showing that
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,essentially life, is made of the same\Nstuff as everything else,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and if we can forget about quantum \Nmechanics in the macro world,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,then we should be able to forget \Nabout it in biology, as well.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, one man begged \Nto differ with this idea.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Erwin Schrödinger, he of Schrödinger's Cat\Nfame, an Austrian physicist.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,He was one of the founders\Nof quantum mechanics in the 1920s.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In 1944, he wrote a book\Ncalled "What is Life?"
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It was tremendously influential.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It influenced Francis Crick\Nand James Watson,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the discoverer's of the double helix\Nstructure of DNA.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,To paraphrase a description in the book,\Nhe says, at the molecular level,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,living organism have a certain order,\Na structure to them that's very
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,different from the random thermodynamic\Njostling of atoms and molecules
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in inanimate matter \Nof the same complexity.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In fact, living matter seems to behave\Nin its order, in its structure
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just like inanimate matter cooled\Ndown to near absolute zero,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where quantum effects \Nplay a very important role.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's something special about\Nthe structure, the order
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,inside of living cell.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So, Schrödinger speculated that maybe\Nquantum mechanics plays a role in life.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a very speculative, sort of\Nfar-reaching idea and it didn't
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,really go very far.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, as I mentioned at the start,\Nin the last 10 years
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,there have been experiment emerging,\Nshowing where some of these certain
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,phenomena in biology, do seem\Nto require quantum mechanics.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, I want to share with you\Njust a few of the exciting ones.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is one of the best known \Nphenomena in the quantum world.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum tunneling.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The box on the left, shows the wavelike\Nspread out distribution of quantum entity.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,A particle, like an electron.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Which is not a little ball \Nbouncing off a wall.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a wave that has a certain probability\Nof being able to permeate through
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a solid wall, like a phantom \Nleaping through to the other side.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can see a faint smudge of light\Nin the right hand box.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum tunneling suggests that a particle\Ncan hit an impenetrable barrier and yet,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,somehow, as if by magic, disappear from\None side and reappear on the other.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The nicest way of explaining it,\Nis if you want to throw a ball
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,over a wall, you have to give it enough\Nenergy to get over the top of the wall.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,In the quantum world, you don't have\Nto throw it over the wall.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can throw it at the wall and three's\Na certain non-zero probability that it'll
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,disappear on one side,\Nand reappear on the other.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This isn't speculation, \Nby the way, we're happy
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- i'm sorry, happy is not the right word.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We are familiar with this.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Laughter)
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Quantum tunneling takes place \Nall the time, in fact
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's the reason our sun shines.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The particles fuse together and the sun\Nis turning hydrogen into helium
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,through quantum tunneling.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Back in the 70s and 80s, it was discovered\Nthat quantum tunneling also takes place
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,inside living cells.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Enzymes, those workhorses of life,\Nthe catalysts of chemical reaction.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Enzymes are biomolecules that speed\Nup chemical reactions in living cells.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,By many, many orders of magnitude.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's always been a mystery\Nhow they do this.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, it was discovered that one\Nof the tricks that enzymes have evolved
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to make use of, is by transferring\Nsubatomic particles, like electrons
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and indeed protons, from one part\Nof a molecule to another via
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,quantum tunneling.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's efficient, it's fast, \Nit can disappear
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,-- a proton can disappear from one place\Nand a reappear on the other.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Enzymes help this take place.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is research that's been carried out\Nback in the 80s, particularly by a group
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Berkeley, Judith Klinman.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Other groups in the UK have now also\Nconfirmed that enzymes really do this.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Research carried out by my group\N-- so I mentioned I'm a nuclear physicist,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but I realize I've got these tools\Nof using quantum mechanics
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in atomic nuclei and so can apply those\Ntools in other areas, as well.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,One question we asked was, whether \Nquantum tunneling plays a role
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in mutations in DNA.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Again, this is not a new idea.\NIt goes all the way back to the early 60s.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The two strands of DNA, the double helix \Nstructure are held together by rungs,
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it's like a twisted ladder.
Dialogue: 0,9:59:59.99,9:59:59.99,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And those rungs of the ladder\Nare hydrogen bonds.