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Let's just talk about the
humoral response right now,
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that deals with B lymphocytes.
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So B lymphocytes or B cells--
let me do them in blue.
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So let's say that that
is a B lymphocyte.
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It's a subset of white blood
cells called lymphocytes.
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It comes from the bone marrow
and that's where the-- well,
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the B comes from bursa of
Fabricius, but we don't want
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to go into detail there.
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But they have all of these
proteins on their surface.
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Actually, close to
10,000 of them.
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I get very excited about
B cells and I'll tell
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you why in a second.
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It has all of these proteins
on them that look
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something like this.
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I'll just draw a
couple of them.
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These are actually protein
complexes, you can
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kind of view them.
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They actually have four separate
proteins on them and
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we can call these proteins
membrane bound antibodies.
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And I'll talk a lot more
about antibodies.
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You've probably heard
the word.
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You have antibodies for such and
such flu, or such and such
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virus, and we're going to talk
more about that in the future,
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but antibodies are
just proteins.
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They're often referred to
as immunoglobulins.
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These are essentially
equivalent words.
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Antibodies or immunoglobulins--
and they're
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really just proteins.
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Now, B cells have these on the
surface of their membranes.
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These are membrane bound.
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Usually when people talk about
antibodies, they're talking
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about free antibodies that are
going to just be floating
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around like that.
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And I'm going to go into
more detail on
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how those are produced.
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Now what's really, really,
really, really, really
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interesting about these membrane
bound antibodies and
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these B cells in particular is
that a B cell has one type of
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membrane bound antibody
on it .
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It's going to also have
antibodies, but those
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antibodies are going
to be different.
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So we'll focus on where
they're different.
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Let me just draw them the same
color first and then we'll
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focus on where they're
different.
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These are both B cells.
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They both have these
antibodies on them.
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The interesting thing is that
from one B cell to another B
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cell, they have a variable part
on this antibody that
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could take on a bunch of
different forms. So this one
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might look like that and that.
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So these long-- I'll go into
more detail on that.
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The fixed portion, you can
imagine is green for any kind
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of antibody, and then there's
a variable portion.
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So maybe this guy's variable
portion is--
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I'll do it in pink.
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And every one of the antibodies
bound to his
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membrane are going to have that
same variable portion.
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This different B cell
is going to have
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different variable portions.
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So I'll do that in a
different color.
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Maybe I'll do it in magenta.
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So his variable portions are
going to be different.
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Now he has 10,000 of these on
a surface and every one of
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these have the same variable
portions, but they're all
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different from the variable
portions on this B cell.
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There's actually 10 billion
different combinations of
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variable portions.
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So the first question-- and I
haven't even told you what the
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variable portions are good for--
is, how do that many
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different combinations arise?
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Obviously these proteins-- or
maybe not so obviously-- all
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these proteins that are part of
most cells are produced by
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the genes of that cell.
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So if I draw-- this
is the nucleus.
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It's got DNA inside
the nucleus.
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This guy has a nucleus.
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It's got DNA inside
the nucleus.
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If these guys are both B cells
and they're both coming from
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the same germ line, they're
coming from the same, I guess,
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ancestry of cells, shouldn't
they have the same DNA?
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If they do have the same DNA,
why are the proteins that
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they're constructing
different?
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How do they change?
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And this is why I find B cells--
and you'll see this is
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also true of T cells-- to be
fascinating is, in their
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development, in their
hematopoiesis-- that's just
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the development of these
lymphocytes.
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At one stage in their
development, there's just a
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lot of shuffling of the portion
of their DNA that
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codes for here, for these
parts of the protein.
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There's just a lot of shuffling
that occurs.
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Most of when we talk about
DNA, we really want to
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preserve the information, not
have a lot of shuffling.
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But when these lymphocytes,
when these B cells are
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maturing, at one stage of their
maturation or their
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development, there's intentional
reshuffling of the
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DNA that codes for this
part and this part.
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And that's what leads to all
of the diversity in the
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variable portions on these
membrane bound
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immunoglobulins.
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And we're about to find out why
there's that diversity.
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So there's tons of stuff that
can infect your body.
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Viruses are are mutating and
evolving and so are bacteria.
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You don't know what's going
to enter your body.
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So what the immune system has
done through B cells-- and
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we'll also see it through T
cells-- it says, hey, let me
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just make a bunch of
combinations of these things
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that can essentially bind
to whatever I get to.
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So let's say that there's
just some new virus
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that shows up, right?
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The world has never seen this
virus before this B cell,
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it'll bump into this virus and
this virus won't attach.
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Another B cell will bump
into this virus
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and it won't attach.
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And maybe several thousands of
B cells will bump into this
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virus and it won't attach, but
since I have so many B cells
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having so many different
combinations of these variable
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portions on these receptors,
eventually one of these B
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cells is going to bond.
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Maybe it's this one.
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He's going to bond to part of
the surface of this virus.
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It could also be to part of a
surface of a new bacteria, or
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part of a surface for some
foreign protein.
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And part of the surface that it
binds on the bacteria-- so
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maybe it binds on that part of
the bacteria-- this is called
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an epitope.
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So once this guy binds to some
foreign pathogen-- and
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remember, the other B cells
won't-- only the particular
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one that had the particular
combination, one of
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the 10 to the 10th.
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And actually, there aren't 10
to the 10th combinations.
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During their development,
they weed out all of the
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combinations that would bind to
things that are essentially
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you, that there shouldn't be
an immune response to.
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So we could say self-responding
combinations
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weeded out.
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So there actually aren't 10
to the 10th, 10 billion
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combinations of these--
something smaller than that.
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You have to take out all the
combinations that would have
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bound to your own cells, but
there's still a super huge
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number of combinations that are
very likely to bond, at
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least to some part of some
pathogen of some
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virus or some bacteria.
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And as soon as one of these B
cells binds, it says, hey
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guys, I'm the lucky guy who
happens to fit exactly this
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brand new pathogen.
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He becomes activated after
binding to the new pathogen.
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And I'm going to go into more
detail in the future.
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In order to really become
activated, you normally need
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help from helper T cells,
but I don't want to
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confuse you in the video.
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So in this case, I'm going to
assume that activation can
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only occur-- or that it just
needs to respond, it just
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needs to essentially
be triggered by
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binding with the pathogen.
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In most cases, you
actually need the
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helper T cells as well.
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And we'll discuss why
that's important.
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It's kind of a fail
safe mechanism
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for your immune system.
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But once this guy gets
activated, he's going to start
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cloning himself.
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He's going to say, look, I'm
the guy that can match this
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virus here-- and so he's going
to start cloning himself.
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He's going to start dividing
and repeating himself.
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So there's just going to be
multiple versions of this guy.
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So they all start to replicate
and they also differentiate--
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differentiate means they start
taking particular roles.
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So there's two forms
of differentiation.
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So many, many, many hundreds
or thousands of these are
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going to be produced.
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And then some are going to
become memory cells, which are
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essentially just B cells that
stick around a long time with
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the perfect receptor on them,
with the perfect variable
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portion of their receptor
on them.
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So some will be memory cells
and they're going to be in
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higher quantities than
they were originally.
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So if if this guy invades our
bodies 10 years in the future,
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they're going to have more of
these guys around that are
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more likely to bump into them
and start and get activated
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and then some of them
are going to turn
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into effector cells.
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And effector cells are generally
cells that actually
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do something.
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What the effector cells do is,
they turn into antibody-- they
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turn into these effector B
cells-- or sometimes they're
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called plasma cells.
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They're going to turn into
antibody factories.
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And the antibodies they're going
to produce are exactly
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this combination, the date that
they originally had being
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membrane bound.
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So they're just going to start
producing these antibodies
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that we talk about with the
exact-- they're going to start
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spitting out these antibodies.
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They're going to start spitting
out tons and tons of
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these proteins that are uniquely
able to bind to the
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new pathogen, this new
thing in question.
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So an activated effector cell
will actually produce 2,000
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antibodies a second.
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So you can imagine, if you have
a lot of these, you're
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going to have all of a sudden
a lot of antibodies floating
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around in your body and going
into the body tissues.
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And the value of that and why
this is the humoral system is,
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all of a sudden, you have all
of these viruses that are
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infecting your system, but now
you're producing all of these
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antibodies.
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The effector cells are these
factories and so these
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specific antibodies will
start bonding.
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So let me draw it like this.
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The specific antibodies will
start bonding to these viruses
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and that has a couple
of values to it.
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One is, it essentially tags
them for pick up.
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Now phagocytosis-- this is
called opsonization.
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When you tag molecules for
pickup and you make them
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easier for phagocytes to eat
them up, this is what--
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antibodies are attaching and
say, hey phagocytes, this is
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going to make it easier.
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You should pick up these
guys in particular.
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It also might make these viruses
hard to function.
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I have this big thing hanging
off the side of it.
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It might be harder for them to
infiltrate cells and the other
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thing is, on each of these
antibodies you have two
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identical heavy chains
and then two
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identical light chains.
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And then they have a very
specific variable portion on
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each one and each of these
branches can bond to the
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epitope on a virus.
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So you can imagine, what happens
if this guy bonds to
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one epitope and this guy
bonds to another virus?
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Then all of a sudden, these
viruses are kind of glued
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together and that's even
more efficient.
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They're not going to be able to
do what they normally do.
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They're not going to be able
to enter cell membranes and
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they're perfectly tagged.
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They've been opsonized so
that phagocytes can come
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and eat them up.
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So we'll talk more about B cells
in the future, but I
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just find it fascinating that
there are that many
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combinations and they have
enough combinations to really
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recognize almost anything that
can exist in the fluids of our
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body, but we haven't solved
all of the problems yet.
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We haven't solved the problem
of what happens when things
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actually infiltrate cells
or we have cancer cells?
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How do we kill cells that have
clearly gone astray?
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