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There is something about phsyics
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that has been really bothering me
since I was a little kid.
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And it's related to a question
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that scientists have been asking
for almost 100 years
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with no answer.
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How do the smallest things in nature,
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the particles of the quantum world,
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match up with the largest
things in nature --
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planets and stars and galaxies
held together by gravity?
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As a kid I would puzzle
over questions just like this.
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I would fiddle around with
microscopes and electromagnets,
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and I would read about
the forces of the small,
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and about quantum mechanics,
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and I would marvel
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at how well that description
matched up to our observation.
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Then I would look at the stars,
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and I would read about how well
we understand gravity,
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and I would think surely there
must be some elegant way
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that these two systems match up,
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but there's not.
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And the books would say,
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yeah, we understand a lot about
these two realms separately,
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but when we try to link
them mathematically,
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everything breaks.
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And for 100 years,
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none of our ideas
as to how to solve this --
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basically --
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physics disaster,
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has ever been supported by evidence.
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And to little old me --
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little, curious, skeptical James --
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this was a supremely unsatisfying answer.
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So I'm still a skeptical little kid --
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well, flash-forward now
to December of 2015,
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when I found myself smack in the middle
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of the physics world
being flipped on its head.
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It all started when we at CERN
saw something intriguing in our data;
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a hint of a new particle,
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an inkling of a possibly extraordinary
answer to this question.
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So I'm still a skeptical
little kid, I think,
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but I'm also now a particle hunter.
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I am a physicist at CERN's
Large Hadron Collider,
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the largest science
experiment ever mounted.
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It's a 27-kilometer tunnel
on the border of France and Switzerland
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buried 100 meters underground.
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And in this tunnel,
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we use superconducting magnets
colder than outer space
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to accelerate protons
to almost the speed of light,
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and slam them into each other
millions of times per second,
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collecting the debris of these collisions
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to search for new, undiscovered
fundamental particles.
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Its design and construction
took decades of work
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by thousands of physicists
from around the globe,
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and in the summer of 2015,
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we had been working tirelessly
to switch on the LHC
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at the highest energy that humans
have ever used in a collider experiment.
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Now, higher energy is important
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because for particles
there is an equivalence
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between energy and particle mass,
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and mass is just number
put there by nature.
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To discover new particles,
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we need to reach these bigger numbers.
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And to do that,
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we have to build a bigger,
higher energy collider,
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and the biggest, highest energy collider
in the world is the Large Hadron Collider.
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Then we collide protons
quadrillions of times,
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and we collect this data very slowly
over months and months.
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And the new particles might show up
in our data as bumps --
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slight deviations from what you expect,
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little clusters of data points
that make a smooth line not so smooth.
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For example,
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this bump,
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after months of data taking in 2012,
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led to the discovery
of the Higgs particle --
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the Higgs boson --
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and to a Nobel Prize
for the confirmation of its existence.
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This jump up in energy in 2015
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represented the best chance
that we as a species had ever had
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of discovering new particles --
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new answers to these
long-standing questions,
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because it was almost twice
as much energy as we used
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when we discovered the Higgs boson.
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Many of my colleagues had been working
their entire careers for this moment,
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and frankly,
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to little curious me,
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this was the moment I'd been
waiting for my entire life.
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So 2015 was go time.
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So June 2015,
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the LHC is switched back on.
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My colleagues and I held our breath
and bit our fingernails,
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and then finally we saw
the first proton collisions
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at this highest energy ever.
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Applause, champagne, celebration.
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This was a milestone for science,
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and we had no idea what we would find
in this brand new data.
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And then a few weeks
later we found a bump.
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It wasn't a very big bump,
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but it was big enough to make
you raise your eyebrow.
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But on a scale of one-to-10
for eyebrow raises,
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if 10 indicates that you've
discovered a new particle,
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this eyebrow raise was about a four.
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(Laughter)
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I spent hours, days, weeks
in secret meetings
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arguing with my colleagues
over this little bump,
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poking and prodding it with our
most ruthless experimental sticks
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to see if it would withstand scrutiny.
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But even after months
of working feverishly --
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sleeping in our offices
and not going home,
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candy bars for dinner,
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coffee by the bucketful --
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physicists are machines
for turning coffee into diagrams ...
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(Laughter)
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This little bump would not go away.
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So after a few months,
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we presented our little bump to the world
with a very clear message:
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this little bump is interesting
but it's not definitive,
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so let's keep an eye on it
as we take more data.
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So we were trying to be
extremely cool about it.
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And the world ran with it anyway.
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The news loved it.
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People said it reminded
them of the little bump
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that was shown on the way
toward the Higgs boson discovery.
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Better than that,
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my theorist colleagues --
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I love my theorist colleagues --
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my theorist colleagues wrote
500 papers about this little bump.
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(Laughter)
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The world of particle phsyics
has been flipped on its head.
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But what was it about this particular bump
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that caused thousands of physicists
to collectively lose their cool?
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This little bump was unique.
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This little bump indicated
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that we were seeing an unexpectedly
large number of collisions
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whose debris consisted
of only two photons --
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two particles of light.
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And that's rare.
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Particle collisions are not
like automobile collisions.
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They have different rules.
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When two particles collide
at almost the speed of light,
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the quantum world takes over.
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And in the quantum world,
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these two particles can briefly
create a new particle
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that lives for a tiny fraction of a second
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before splitting into other particles
that hit our detector.
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Imagine a car collision where
the two cars vanish upon impact,
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a bicycle appears in their place --
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(Laughter)
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And then that bicycle explodes
into two skateboards
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which hit our detector.
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(Laughter)
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Hopefully not literally --
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they're very expensive.
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The events where only two photons
hit out detector are very rare.
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And because of the special
quantum properties of photons,
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there's a very small number
of possible new particles --
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these mythical bicycles --
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that can give birth to only two photons.
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But one of these options is huge,
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and it has to do with
that long-standing question,
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that bothered me as a tiny little kid,
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about gravity.
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So gravity may seem super strong to you,
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but it's actually crazily weak
compared to the other forces of nature.
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I can briefly beat
gravity when I jump ...
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but I can't pick a proton out of my hand.
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The strength of gravity compared
to the other forces of nature?
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It's ten to the minus 39.
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That's a decimal with 39 zeros after it.
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Worse than that,
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all of the other known forces of nature
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are perfectly described by this thing
that we call the Standard Model,
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which is our current best description
of nature at its smallest scales,
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and quite frankly,
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one of the most successful
achievements of humankind ...
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except for gravity which is absent
from the Standard Model.
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It's crazy.
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It's almost as though most
of gravity has gone missing.
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We feel a little bit of it,
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but where's the rest of it?
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No one knows.
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But one theoretical explanation
proposes a wild solution.
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You and I --
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even you in the back --
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we live in three dimensions of space.
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I hope that's a
non-controversial statement.
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(Laughter)
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All of the known particles also live
in three dimensions of space.
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In fact, a particle is just another name
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for an excitation
in a three-dimensional field;
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a localized wobbling in space.
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More importantly,
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all the math that we use
to describe all this stuff
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assumes that there are only
three dimensions of space.
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But math is math,
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and we can play around
with our math however we want,
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and people have been playing around
with extra dimensions of space
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for a very long time,
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but it's always been an abstract
mathematical concept.
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I mean just look around you --
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you at the back,
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look around --
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there's clearly only
three dimensions of space.
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But what if that's not true?
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What if the missing gravity is leaking
into an extra spacial dimension
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that's invisible to you and I.
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What if gravity is just as strong
as the other forces
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if you were to view it in this
extra spatial dimension,
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and what you and I experience
as a tiny slice of gravity
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make it seem very weak.
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If this were true,
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we would have to expand
our Standard Model of particles
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to include an extra particle;
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a hyperdimensional particle of gravity,
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a special graviton that lives
in extra spatial dimensions.
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And I see the looks on your faces.
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You should be asking me the question,
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"How in the world are we going to test
this crazy, science fiction idea
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stuck as we are in three dimensions?"
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The way we always do,
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by slamming together two protons --
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(Laughter)
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Hard enough that the
collision reverberates
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into any extra spatial dimensions
that might be there,
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momentarily creating
this hyperdimensional graviton
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that then snaps back into
the three dimensions of the LHC,
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and spits off two photons --
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two particles of light.
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And this hypothetical,
extradimensional graviton
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is one of the only possible,
hypothetical, new particles
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that has the special quantum properties
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that could give birth to our little,
two-photon bump.
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So, the possibility of explaining
the mysteries of gravity,
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and of discovering extra
dimensions of space,
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perhaps now you get a sense
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as to why thousands of physics geeks
collectively lost their cool
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over our little, two-photon bump.
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A discovery of this type
would rewrite the textbooks.
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But remember,
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the message from us experimentalists
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that actually were doing
this work at the time,
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was very clear:
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we need more data.
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With more data,
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the little bump will either turn
into a nice, crisp Nobel Prize --
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(Laughter)
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Or the extra data will fill in
the space around the bump,
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and turn it into a nice, smooth line.
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So we took more data,
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and with five times the data,
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several months later,
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our little bump ...
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turned into a smooth line.
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The news reported
on a "huge disappointment,"
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on "faded hopes,"
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and on particle physicists "being sad."
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Given the tone of the coverage,
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you'd think that we had decided
to shut down the LHC and go home.
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(Laughter)
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But that's not what we did.
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But why not?
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I mean, if I didn't discover a particle --
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and I didn't --
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if I didn't discover a particle,
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why am I here talking to you?
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Why didn't I just hang my head in shame
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and go home?
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Particle physicists are explorers,
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and very much of what
we do is cartography.
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I'm going to put it this way.
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Forget about the LHC for a second.
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Imagine you are a space explorer
arriving at a distant planet,
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searching for aliens.
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What is your first task?
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To immediately orbit the planet,
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land, take a quick look around
for any big, obvious signs of life,
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and report back to home base.
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That's the stage we're at now.
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We took a first look at the LHC
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for any new, big,
obvious-to-spot particles,
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and we can report that there are none.
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We saw a weird-looking alien bump
on a distant mountain,
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but once we got closer,
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we saw it was a rock.
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But then what do we do?
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Do we just give up and fly away?
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Absolutely not.
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We would be terrible scientists if we did.
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No, we spend the next
couple of decades exploring,
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mapping out the territory,
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sifting through the sand
with a fine instrument,
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peeking under every stone,
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drilling under the surface.
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New particles can either
show up immediately
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as big, obvious-to-spot bumps,
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or they can only reveal themselves
after years of data taking.
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Humanity has just begun its exploration
of the LHC at this big, high energy,
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and we have much searching to do.
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But what if --
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OK --
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what if even after 10 or 20 years
we still find no new particles?
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We build a bigger machine.
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(Laughter)
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We search at higher energies.
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We search at higher energies.
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Planning is already underway
for a 100-kilometer tunnel
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that will collide particles
at 10 times the energy of the LHC.
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We don't decide where
nature places new particles.
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We only decided to keep exploring.
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But what if even after
a 100-kilometer tunnel,
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or a 500-kilometer tunnel,
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or 10,000-kilometer collider
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floating in space between
the earth and the moon,
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we still find no new particles?
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Then perhaps we're doing
particle physics wrong.
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(Laughter)
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Perhaps we need to rethink things.
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Maybe we need more
resources, technology, expertise
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than what we currently have.
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We already use artificial intelligence
and machine learning techniques
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in parts of the LHC,
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but imagine designing
a particle physics experiment
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using such sophisticated algorithms
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that it could teach itself to discover
a hyperdimensional graviton.
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But what if?
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What if the ultimate question --
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what if even artificial intelligence
can't help us answer our questions?
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What if these open questions,
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for centuries,
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are destined to be unanswered
for the foreseeable future?
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What if the stuff that's bothered me
since I was a little kid
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is destined to be unanswered
in my lifetime?
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Then that will be even more fascinating.
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We will be forced to think
in completely new ways.
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We'll have to go back to our assumptions,
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and determine if there
was a flaw somewhere.
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And we'll need to encourage more people
to join us in studying science
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since we need fresh eyes
on these century-old problems.
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I don't have the answers,
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and I'm still searching for them.
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But someone --
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maybe she's in school right now,
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maybe she's not even born yet --
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could eventually guide us to see
physics in a completely new way,
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and to point out that perhaps
we're just asking the wrong questions ...
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which would not be the end of physics,
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but a novel beginning.
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Thank you.
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(Applause)