Loneliness is a recent invention | Telmo Pievani | TEDxLakeComo
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0:06 - 0:09Evolution is possibly the field of science
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0:09 - 0:13that tells the most stories.
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0:13 - 0:14It tells a lot of stories,
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0:14 - 0:18but unlike the myths and tales
we tell children -
0:18 - 0:22we try to reconstruct them
using evidence, facts and signs. -
0:22 - 0:24A bit like Sherlock Holmes.
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0:24 - 0:29But stories, we know, are slippery:
they have pros and cons. -
0:29 - 0:32They can fascinate us,
but they can also deceive us. -
0:32 - 0:36They may present us
with false reconstructions. -
0:36 - 0:40Many years ago, a colleague of mine,
far more illustrious than me -- -
0:40 - 0:41his name was J.B.S. Haldane,
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0:41 - 0:45and he was one of the fathers
of population genetics -- -
0:45 - 0:50was in a very formal salon in Oxford
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0:50 - 0:54in the presence of theologians,
ladies and princesses. -
0:54 - 0:56And one of the ladies asked him,
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0:56 - 0:58"Excuse me, Professor Haldane,
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0:58 - 1:02but if you were to imagine the Creator,
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1:02 - 1:05how would you see him?
How do you picture him?" -
1:05 - 1:06It was a somewhat loaded question
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1:06 - 1:10because Haldane was known to be
an atheist, a disbeliever, a communist. -
1:10 - 1:13He was a bit of an oddball,
especially in England in those days. -
1:13 - 1:15And Haldane replied,
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1:15 - 1:16"Look, ma'am, I don't know.
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1:16 - 1:18But if I were to imagine the Creator,
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1:18 - 1:20I think he has
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1:20 - 1:23an inordinate passion for beetles."
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1:24 - 1:25What did Haldane mean?
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1:25 - 1:28He meant that if we look
at the earth and biodiversity -
1:28 - 1:30from an evolutionist's point of view,
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1:30 - 1:32the first thing we notice
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1:32 - 1:34is that we are at the edge
of the empire, -
1:34 - 1:36we are not at the centre of this story.
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1:36 - 1:40We are one of the many wonderful species
created by natural history. -
1:41 - 1:46The story I'm about to tell you
is the result of very recent research. -
1:47 - 1:50So let me tell you what we discovered
but a few months ago -
1:50 - 1:54and decisively disrupted our way
of telling the story of human evolution. -
1:54 - 1:57Basically, it is the story
of a disappointment, -
1:57 - 2:01but a constructive disappointment,
a disappointment that is good for us, -
2:01 - 2:02that makes us think,
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2:02 - 2:03that once more sets in motion
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2:03 - 2:06the great questions
that science is able to raise. -
2:06 - 2:09Where do we come from?
Why? What are we doing here? -
2:09 - 2:11What is the place of man in nature?
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2:11 - 2:14The beginning of the story
is in this image that you see behind me. -
2:15 - 2:20It is a fascinating, mysterious page
written by Charles Darwin himself, -
2:20 - 2:23dating back to July 1837.
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2:23 - 2:26If you remember the dates,
it means he was very young. -
2:26 - 2:29He was born in 1809,
he was not yet thirty. -
2:29 - 2:30He had just returned
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2:30 - 2:35from a wonderful five-year voyage
around the world, which we've all studied. -
2:35 - 2:38He came back in 1836
and, as soon as he got back, -
2:38 - 2:40he began writing
in these private notebooks. -
2:40 - 2:41Very private.
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2:41 - 2:44So secret that they were
to practically become -
2:44 - 2:47the only Darwinian writing
that he decided never to publish. -
2:47 - 2:49He is known to have said,
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2:49 - 2:51"I entreat you never to circulate
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2:51 - 2:54what I wrote as a boy
just back from my voyage." -
2:54 - 2:55On one of these pages,
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2:55 - 3:00there is this beautiful diagram
that he called The Tree of Life. -
3:00 - 3:03And he wrote, see, "I think…",
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3:03 - 3:06because, for the first time,
he was writing to himself, -
3:06 - 3:09he was talking to himself about
what he'd understood about evolution. -
3:09 - 3:11That is, evolution is a tree
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3:11 - 3:14and like a tree it has a trunk,
so common ancestors, -
3:14 - 3:15and then it has ramifications,
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3:15 - 3:18species that diversify over time
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3:18 - 3:21and then become extinct,
that multiply and so on. -
3:21 - 3:27An interesting story, a plural story,
made up of many different species. -
3:27 - 3:30Why am I telling you a story
that is actually a disappointment? -
3:30 - 3:35It is because when we applied
this Darwinian idea -- -
3:35 - 3:38already back in 1837,
then he became famous, -
3:38 - 3:41and 20 years later he published
"On the Origin of Species" -- -
3:41 - 3:43when we dealed with human evolution,
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3:43 - 3:46scientists themselves
actually made an exception. -
3:46 - 3:52And I say scientists themselves,
not lay people or opponents of evolution. -
3:52 - 3:56And if you look at how Thomas Henry Huxley
reconstructed human evolution, -
3:56 - 3:59you'll see that it's very different
from the tree I showed you before. -
3:59 - 4:02The first was a story
of diversity, of multiplicity, -
4:02 - 4:04of coexistence of different species.
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4:04 - 4:06This is a very different story,
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4:06 - 4:11where there's only one species at a time,
we proceed in a linear fashion. -
4:11 - 4:14This is a great story of progress.
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4:14 - 4:16It's what a colleague of mine,
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4:16 - 4:18who was very important in my training,
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4:18 - 4:19his name was Stephen Jay Gould,
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4:19 - 4:22called "our great illusion".
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4:22 - 4:23The illusion that Homo Sapiens,
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4:23 - 4:26who is always placed at the end,
at the far right, -
4:26 - 4:29should represent
the culmination of evolution. -
4:29 - 4:34The illusion that the Story
should necessarily lead to us. -
4:34 - 4:37Surely this image
is very familiar to all of us. -
4:37 - 4:40We always come across it,
in newspapers, on television, -
4:40 - 4:42we have seen it many a time.
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4:42 - 4:46What we have recently discovered
is that this exception is not valid. -
4:46 - 4:48It's been proved wrong,
we've called it into question. -
4:48 - 4:52Human evolution
did not take place that way. -
4:52 - 4:55I'll show you other
alternatives to this image -
4:55 - 4:58that is used in advertising,
it is used everywhere. -
4:58 - 5:00My favourite one is that one
at the top right corner. -
5:00 - 5:03It appeared in a feminist magazine
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5:03 - 5:07and it compares the slow and gradual
but progressive evolution of the male -
5:07 - 5:10with that of the female,
very stable actually. -
5:10 - 5:12I've found all sorts
of variants of this image. -
5:12 - 5:14It's a sort of major icon.
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5:14 - 5:16An iconography.
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5:16 - 5:21Even today, when we publish articles
on human evolution in newspapers -
5:21 - 5:24they always illustrate it with this image.
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5:24 - 5:25It also happened to me recently.
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5:25 - 5:30The first line of my article was,
"There are no missing links in evolution." -
5:30 - 5:34And they accompanied it with this image
showing the missing links of evolution. -
5:34 - 5:38So it's something very powerful,
deeply rooted in our minds. -
5:38 - 5:42The version that I definitely choose
as the absolute best in the world -
5:42 - 5:46is this one that was proposed
in The Simpsons -
5:46 - 5:51where evolution culminates inexorably
and wonderfully in Homersapiens, -
5:51 - 5:53whom you see at the far right.
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5:53 - 5:56Why is this exception very strange?
-
5:56 - 6:03Because while we kept on upholding
this great iconography of hope, -
6:03 - 6:04scientists forged ahead
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6:04 - 6:09and rewrote the evolutionary stories,
the natural stories of the species -
6:09 - 6:10in a very different way.
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6:10 - 6:13This image is less easy to understand
than the previous ones -
6:13 - 6:15but it is wonderful.
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6:15 - 6:17Let me tell you one thing:
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6:17 - 6:20I think that if an alien
were to fall to Earth -
6:20 - 6:22and we were to tell him
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6:22 - 6:25about one of the great achievements
of science and knowledge -- -
6:25 - 6:27yes, true, we have
the theory of relativity -
6:27 - 6:29and a lot of discoveries
in the field of physics -
6:29 - 6:31but I'd show him this picture,
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6:31 - 6:32and say "Thanks to science,
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6:32 - 6:35the species Homo sapiens
has managed to do one thing: -
6:35 - 6:38it's managed to assemble
and reconstruct the Tree of Life, -
6:38 - 6:42that is, to decode kinship
across all living beings, -
6:42 - 6:45but really all of them, from bacteria
up to the most complex animal, -
6:45 - 6:48up to the jaguar, the giraffe,
to the humans -
6:48 - 6:51who have inhabited
and do inhabit now this planet. -
6:51 - 6:54This Tree of Life brings together
all the living beings we know." -
6:54 - 6:56And you see that it is a tree,
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6:56 - 6:58it has many branches,
there are many species. -
6:58 - 7:01If you want to find yourself,
it is extremely complicated -
7:01 - 7:03because we're here,
the animals in here, -
7:03 - 7:07and we happen to be closer related
to mushrooms than to plants, -
7:07 - 7:09another thing we don't really like.
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7:09 - 7:10And among animals
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7:10 - 7:14you have to go from twig
to twig to twig for nine times -
7:14 - 7:15before you find Homo sapiens.
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7:15 - 7:18In other words, we're at the edge
of the biodiversity empire -
7:18 - 7:23as Haldane said with that funny quip
when he wanted to shock the lady. -
7:23 - 7:28The same thing holds true
if we approach our personal history, -
7:28 - 7:31that of our family: we find
the same pattern, can you see? -
7:31 - 7:34I don't want to go into this
because it is a bit too technical, -
7:34 - 7:38but if you look at this image
we are here, we are this species, -
7:38 - 7:40we are in this genus, the genus Homo.
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7:40 - 7:45If you look back, you find a story
of major ramifications like these. -
7:45 - 7:48What you find is a bush, not a ladder.
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7:48 - 7:51You don't find linearity,
you find multiplicity. -
7:51 - 7:53And interestingly,
if you look at such schemes -
7:53 - 7:57and you draw any time line --
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7:57 - 7:59imagine you have a time machine,
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7:59 - 8:03choose any epoch,
10 million years ago, for example, -
8:03 - 8:04and draw the line --
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8:04 - 8:07you will discover that at any time
of evolutionary history -
8:07 - 8:10there were many different species
existing at the same time, -
8:10 - 8:13more or less related to one another.
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8:13 - 8:15Here you see that if you start from today,
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8:15 - 8:18Homo Sapiens shares
a common ancestor with chimpanzees -
8:18 - 8:21who lived some 6/7 million years ago,
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8:21 - 8:24and going further back
he shares one with gorillas, -
8:24 - 8:27with orangutans, gibbons
and with all the other living beings, -
8:27 - 8:30so this is a very synthetic,
very powerful image. -
8:30 - 8:35Why was this powerful image
of evolution called into question? -
8:35 - 8:38As is often the case in science,
there's a bit of inertia, -
8:38 - 8:41new ideas sometimes have
a hard time to be accepted, -
8:41 - 8:43then one is submerged by anomalies.
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8:43 - 8:47That model didn't work and in the end,
though reluctantly, we abandoned it. -
8:47 - 8:50This is a beautiful discovery
made in 2009, -
8:50 - 8:53and it is so important that Science
devoted no less than two covers to it. -
8:53 - 9:00So, the most important discovery of 2009
is our possible ancestor called Ardi, -
9:00 - 9:01from Ardipithecus.
-
9:01 - 9:03If you look closely at it,
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9:03 - 9:06you can see that it has a mix
of modern and archaic features. -
9:06 - 9:11It is a bit ape-like as you can see
from its very long upper limbs -
9:11 - 9:12and its divergent big toe,
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9:12 - 9:14yet it is perfectly bipedal,
with a flat face -
9:14 - 9:16and therefore presents
a mix of characters. -
9:16 - 9:19Now, interestingly, we discovered
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9:19 - 9:21that our ancestor wasn't to be placed
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9:21 - 9:23at the beginning
of the evolutionary process -
9:23 - 9:25but lived at the same time as others.
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9:25 - 9:27Look, this is pretty incredible.
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9:27 - 9:30This is a valley in Ethiopia,
a single valley in Ethiopia. -
9:30 - 9:36We Sapiens also originated
in that area, in one of those valleys. -
9:36 - 9:37In just one of these valleys
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9:37 - 9:41there were no less
than three different human genera, -
9:41 - 9:43here shown in different colours,
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9:43 - 9:47and none of them happened to disappear
or be replaced by another one. -
9:47 - 9:51They simply lived together in a bushy way.
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9:51 - 9:54Some died out, some new species appeared
-
9:54 - 9:58and that complicated
and interesting image of evolution, -
9:58 - 10:00which concerns us directly, was created.
-
10:00 - 10:05So this is how my colleagues and I
rebuilt human evolution. -
10:05 - 10:07See, time flows from bottom to top.
-
10:07 - 10:09It's a real bush.
-
10:09 - 10:13You see that from the days
of our common ancestor with chimpanzees -
10:13 - 10:19there have been about 20, maybe even 22,
some even say 25 different species. -
10:19 - 10:21That's anything but a linear evolution.
-
10:21 - 10:22It's a lot more complicated,
-
10:22 - 10:24there's loads of different species.
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10:24 - 10:30Even here, wherever you draw a line,
you find a lot of species coexisting. -
10:30 - 10:33What we have recently found out,
in the last year and a half, -
10:33 - 10:36and what actually shocked us
as we hadn't been expecting it, -
10:36 - 10:39is that this is true
even in very recent times. -
10:39 - 10:40If you look here,
-
10:40 - 10:44Homo sapiens is at the top right
and we are the last twig, this one. -
10:44 - 10:46This is the present.
-
10:46 - 10:52If you just go a little back in time,
even only 40/50,000 years, -
10:52 - 10:55you discover that there were
other human species on Earth. -
10:55 - 10:57And we have recently found out
-
10:57 - 11:02that up to 30, 35, 40,000
years ago at most, mind you, -
11:02 - 11:06five human species coexisted on Earth,
at the same time. -
11:06 - 11:10That's something we hardly figure out:
five different human species! -
11:10 - 11:12If an alien had fallen to Earth
40,000 years ago, -
11:12 - 11:15he would have seen us Sapiens
-
11:15 - 11:19roam around with four other human forms.
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11:19 - 11:25This, of course, opens up
many important and intriguing questions. -
11:26 - 11:28This is one of the latest discoveries,
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11:28 - 11:31made in Indonesia
on a small island called Flores. -
11:31 - 11:35We found storks 1.80 m tall,
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11:35 - 11:38mice 1.50 m long, tail included,
-
11:38 - 11:42and small Hominini,
which hardly ever exceeded 1 m in height. -
11:42 - 11:45This is a relative of ours,
a cousin of ours, -
11:45 - 11:47discovered a few years ago on this island
-
11:47 - 11:50where it had been stuck
for hundreds of thousands of years, -
11:50 - 11:52and had become very short.
-
11:52 - 11:56This is an evolutionary mechanism called
insular dwarfism and it often occurs. -
11:56 - 11:57It also occurred in Italy.
-
11:57 - 12:00As you may know,
dwarf elephants lived in Sicily, -
12:00 - 12:02they were as big as a large dog.
-
12:02 - 12:04Dwarf mammoths lived in Sardinia.
-
12:04 - 12:10This is because when large
warm-blooded species get stuck on islands, -
12:10 - 12:13it is better for them to become smaller,
in terms of natural selection. -
12:13 - 12:15But incredibly, this is the first time
-
12:15 - 12:18that we see this occurring
in a human species. -
12:18 - 12:21But even more shockingly,
-
12:21 - 12:27so much so that it took us a few years
before we actually accepted the fact, -
12:27 - 12:28this specimen here,
-
12:28 - 12:32immediately called
Hobbit Man, by scientists, -
12:32 - 12:34that Hobbit Man on that island, Flores,
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12:34 - 12:38carried on and survived
until 12,000 years ago, -
12:38 - 12:39the day before yesterday.
-
12:39 - 12:43At school, almost all of us studied
the Egyptians, the Sumerians, -
12:43 - 12:45the civilizations who invented
writing, the pyramids. -
12:45 - 12:48Take the pyramids, go back
a few thousand years -
12:48 - 12:52and on Earth there was
another human species, related to us, -
12:52 - 12:54with whom we coexisted
-
12:54 - 12:58and whom we also met
as we actually visited that island. -
12:58 - 12:59We know that because Homo Sapiens
-
12:59 - 13:03went in Australia
long before their extinction. -
13:03 - 13:07And we also know that we met,
we saw each other. -
13:07 - 13:12But there have been even more shocking
close encounters of the prehistoric type. -
13:12 - 13:17This is the latest discovery;
the paper is from April 2010. -
13:17 - 13:23In short, in a cave in the Altai mountains
in southern Siberia, on Asia, -
13:23 - 13:26we identified another human species
whose existence we had had no inkling of. -
13:26 - 13:31We knew that this cave, the Denisova cave,
had already been inhabited by two species: -
13:31 - 13:35we the Sapiens,
already 40/50,000 years ago, -
13:35 - 13:38and the famous Neanderthals,
we've all studied about at school. -
13:38 - 13:42You know that Neanderthal
was not an ancestor of ours, -
13:42 - 13:43he was a cousin of ours.
-
13:43 - 13:45We coexisted with him:
-
13:45 - 13:47even here in Italy,
in these valleys, in these areas -
13:47 - 13:51there were villages inhabited by Sapiens
and others by Neanderthals. -
13:51 - 13:55We probably communicated,
maybe we even swapped technologies. -
13:55 - 13:57There are sites where
sometimes an innovation, -
13:57 - 14:00which had already appeared
in a Sapiens settlement, -
14:00 - 14:02was then found in
a Neanderthal one and vice versa. -
14:02 - 14:04This shows that there was an interaction.
-
14:04 - 14:07Our evolutionary history
is checkered with alter egos. -
14:07 - 14:08We have never been alone.
-
14:08 - 14:11We've been alone on this planet
for a very short time indeed. -
14:11 - 14:15And in that cave,
scientists expected to find remains -
14:15 - 14:18of either Sapiens or Neanderthals
or possibly both of them. -
14:18 - 14:22They took a little finger,
a phalanx, from a skeleton, -
14:23 - 14:26brought it back to Germany
and extracted its DNA. -
14:26 - 14:30That can be done today: we don't live
in Jurassic Park, but it can be done! -
14:30 - 14:32You extract the DNA
and see which species it belongs to. -
14:32 - 14:35It turned out it belonged
to neither Sapiens nor Neanderthal -
14:35 - 14:37but to yet another species.
-
14:37 - 14:40So a very complex history of coexistence.
-
14:40 - 14:43You must be wondering about
something that we are all curious about, -
14:43 - 14:48because evolution, Gould said it himself,
is a story of death and sex -
14:48 - 14:51and we're always very interested in both.
-
14:51 - 14:57Well, we don't know what caused
these species to disappear, to die out. -
14:57 - 14:59They all became extinct very recently,
-
14:59 - 15:04and I know that you suspect we might
have had something to do with this. -
15:04 - 15:06We probably did play a role
in their extinction, -
15:06 - 15:10but we don't know exactly how,
as nothing dramatic happened. -
15:10 - 15:12We can state for sure,
it was not a genocide. -
15:12 - 15:14We did not kill them off directly.
-
15:14 - 15:19Something else must have happened
that led to their progressive regression. -
15:19 - 15:20The fact is that, recently,
-
15:20 - 15:23we became the only human species
left on the planet. -
15:23 - 15:27Then there is the sex side
and this is also surprising. -
15:27 - 15:28Up to a few months ago
-
15:28 - 15:32I would have told you that
different species could not interbreed. -
15:32 - 15:34We thought there was a genetic barrier.
-
15:34 - 15:37But the last discovery we made
proved that this was not the case. -
15:37 - 15:41Actually, all non-African Sapiens,
-
15:41 - 15:44that is those who came out of Africa
and remained out of Africa, -
15:44 - 15:49probably have a 4 to 6% proportion
of Neanderthal traces in their blood. -
15:49 - 15:54So we carry some traces
of Neanderthal DNA in our blood. -
15:54 - 15:56How is that possible?
-
15:56 - 16:00The only explanation, or at any rate,
the most plausible explanation -
16:00 - 16:04is that at least at some time in the past,
possibly in the Middle East for some, -
16:04 - 16:07for 10/15 thousand years
we may have mated. -
16:07 - 16:12We had fertile matings,
so the two species interbred for a while, -
16:12 - 16:18then they separated, one of them died out
and we Sapiens had the upper hand. -
16:18 - 16:23But this is a dogma that is refuted
because our genome is not only ours, -
16:23 - 16:25so we must not be too jealous.
-
16:25 - 16:26It is a cloak of Harlequin
-
16:26 - 16:29in which there are traces
of other species. -
16:29 - 16:32We are not alone, not even in our genome.
-
16:32 - 16:35I'm now showing you this image
because we came out of here. -
16:35 - 16:38This is another very recent fact:
the strait of Djibouti. -
16:38 - 16:42Populations of the Sapiens
crossed this small passage, -
16:42 - 16:46and then met the other species
that had left earlier: -
16:46 - 16:49the Neanderthals, the Denisovans
I have just shown you, -
16:49 - 16:52and then the Indonesian species.
-
16:52 - 16:55This is a summary
of everything I have told you: -
16:55 - 16:56we ventured out of Africa,
-
16:56 - 17:00we did so repeatedly
from 100/120,000 years ago -
17:00 - 17:04and when we came out,
we met other existing living forms, -
17:04 - 17:06human species related to us.
-
17:06 - 17:11We coexisted, we sometimes mated
and then we colonized the whole world. -
17:11 - 17:13We're the only one, for example,
-
17:13 - 17:15who arrived in Australia
and then colonized the Americas, -
17:15 - 17:18because in the ice ages
the world was different -
17:18 - 17:20from what it appears to be like here.
-
17:20 - 17:23There were entire continents
that are now submerged, like Beringia, -
17:23 - 17:26or this whole area which was passable.
-
17:26 - 17:30So you could get there
without crossing the sea -
17:30 - 17:34from South Africa to South America.
-
17:34 - 17:37One of the consequences, of course,
of this whole story -
17:37 - 17:38is, first, that perhaps
-
17:38 - 17:41we need to look at evolution
with a little more humility, -
17:41 - 17:45without thinking of ourselves
as the ultimate end, -
17:45 - 17:47especially since we interbred.
-
17:47 - 17:48And interestingly,
-
17:48 - 17:52but I'm saying it only now, in closing,
because I didn't want to shock anyone, -
17:52 - 17:55we also know that the interbreeding
was asymmetrical. -
17:55 - 17:58It was always a Neanderthal male
with a Sapiens female. -
17:58 - 18:01That for us Sapiens boys
is really disheartening -
18:01 - 18:02(Laughter)
-
18:02 - 18:05because we had our females
stolen from us 40,000 years ago already, -
18:05 - 18:08so evolution punched us in the stomach.
-
18:08 - 18:10But the second consequence
is more serious: -
18:10 - 18:12if this is our history,
-
18:12 - 18:16then what we have always called
"human races" do not actually exist. -
18:16 - 18:17We are a young species,
-
18:17 - 18:19we all come from a very small group
-
18:19 - 18:22and there was no time
to separate human races. -
18:22 - 18:27So let's delete the concept of human race
from the language of science. -
18:27 - 18:28Thank you!
-
18:28 - 18:29(Applause)
- Title:
- Loneliness is a recent invention | Telmo Pievani | TEDxLakeComo
- Description:
-
Among so many other things, Telmo Pievani is a thinker, professor of philosophy of science at the University of Milano-Bicocca, author of a great number of publications and director of Pikaia, the Italian portal of evolution (www.pikaia.eu)
This talk was given at a TEDx event using the TED conference format but independently organized by a local community.
Learn more at http://ted.com/tedx
- Video Language:
- Italian
- Team:
- closed TED
- Project:
- TEDxTalks
- Duration:
- 18:35
Michele Gianella approved English subtitles for TEDxLakeComo -- Telmo Pievani - La solitudine è un'invenzione recente | ||
Michele Gianella edited English subtitles for TEDxLakeComo -- Telmo Pievani - La solitudine è un'invenzione recente | ||
Retired user accepted English subtitles for TEDxLakeComo -- Telmo Pievani - La solitudine è un'invenzione recente | ||
Retired user edited English subtitles for TEDxLakeComo -- Telmo Pievani - La solitudine è un'invenzione recente | ||
Michele Gianella edited English subtitles for TEDxLakeComo -- Telmo Pievani - La solitudine è un'invenzione recente | ||
Michele Gianella edited English subtitles for TEDxLakeComo -- Telmo Pievani - La solitudine è un'invenzione recente |