-
MAGDALENA TODA: I'm
starting early, am I?
-
It's exactly 12:30.
-
The weather is getting
better, hopefully,
-
and not too many people
should miss class today.
-
Can you start an attendance
sheet for me [INAUDIBLE]?
-
I know I can count on you.
-
OK.
-
I have good markers today.
-
I'm going to go ahead
and talk about 12.3,
-
double integrals in
polar coordinates.
-
These are all friends of yours.
-
-
You've seen until now
only double integrals that
-
involve the rectangles, either
a rectangle, we saw [INAUDIBLE],
-
and we saw some type
of double integrals,
-
of course that involved
x and y, so-called type
-
1 and type 2
regions, which were--
-
so we saw the rectangular case.
-
You have ab plus
cd, a rectangle.
-
You have what other kind
of a velocity [INAUDIBLE]
-
over the the main of the shape
x between a and be and y.
-
You write wild and happy
from bottom to top.
-
That's called the wild--
not wild, the vertical strip
-
method, where y will be
between the bottom function
-
f of x and the top
function f of x.
-
And last time I
took examples where
-
f and g were both positive, but
remember, you don't have to.
-
All you have to have is that
g is always greater than f,
-
or equal at some point.
-
-
And then what else do
we have for these cases?
-
These are all
continuous functions.
-
What else did we have?
-
We had two domains.
-
-
Had one and had two.
-
-
Where what was going on,
we have played a little bit
-
around with y between c
and d limits with points.
-
These are horizontal,
so we take the domain
-
as being defined by these
horizontal strips between let's
-
say a function.
-
Again, I need to rotate my head,
but I didn't do my yoga today,
-
so it's a little bit sticky.
-
I'll try.
-
x equals F of y, and x equals
G of y, assuming, of course,
-
that f of y is always greater
than or equal to g of y,
-
and the rest of the
apparatus is in place.
-
Those are not so
hard to understand.
-
We played around.
-
We switched the integrals.
-
We changed the order of
integration from dy dx
-
to dx dy, so we have
to change the domain.
-
We went from
vertical strip method
-
to horizontal strip method
or the other way around.
-
And for what kind of
example, something
-
like that-- I think it
was a leaf like that,
-
we said, let's compute
the area or compute
-
another kind of double
integral over this leaf in two
-
different ways.
-
And we did it with
vertical strips,
-
and we did the same
with horizontal strips.
-
-
So we reversed the
order of integration,
-
and we said, I'm having the
double integral over domain
-
of God knows what, f of
xy, continuous function,
-
positive, continuous whenever
you want, and we said da.
-
We didn't quite specify
the meaning of da.
-
We said that da is
the area element,
-
but that sounds a little
bit weird, because it makes
-
you think of surfaces,
and an area element
-
doesn't have to be a
little square in general.
-
It could be something like a
patch on a surface, bounded
-
by two curves within your
segments in each direction.
-
So you think, well, I
don't know what that is.
-
I'll tell you
today what that is.
-
It's a mysterious thing,
it's really beautiful,
-
and we'll talk about it.
-
Now, what did we do last time?
-
We applied the two
theorems that allowed
-
us to do this both ways.
-
Integral from a to b, what was
my usual [? wrist ?] is down,
-
f of x is in g of x, right?
-
-
dy dx.
-
So if you do it in
this order, it's
-
going to be the same as if
you do it in the other order.
-
ab are these guys, and then
this was cd on the y-axis.
-
This is the range between
c and d in altitudes.
-
So we have integral from
c to d, integral from,
-
I don't know what they will be.
-
This big guy I'm talking--
which one is the one?
-
This one, that's going to
be called x equals f of y,
-
or g of y, and let's put the
big one G and the smaller one,
-
x equals F of y.
-
So you have to [? re-denote ?]
these functions,
-
these inverse functions, and
use them as functions of y.
-
So it makes sense to
say-- what did we do?
-
We first integrated respect to
x between two functions of y.
-
That was the so-called
horizontal strip method, dy.
-
So I have summarized
the ideas from last time
-
that we worked with, generally
with corners x and y.
-
We were very happy about them.
-
We had the rectangular
domain, where x was between ab
-
and y was between cd.
-
Then we went to type 1, not
diabetes, just type 1 region,
-
type 2, and those
guys are related.
-
So if you understood 1 and
understood the other one,
-
and if you have a
nice domain like that,
-
you can compute the
area or something.
-
The area will correspond
to x equals 1.
-
So if f is 1, then
that's the area.
-
That will also be a
volume of a cylinder based
-
on that region with height 1.
-
Imagine a can of Coke
that has height 1,
-
and-- maybe better,
chocolate cake,
-
that has the shape of
this leaf on the bottom,
-
and then its height
is 1 everywhere.
-
So if you put 1 here, and
you get the area element,
-
and then everything
else can be done
-
by reversing the order of
integration if f is continuous.
-
But for polar
coordinates, the situation
-
has to be reconsidered almost
entirely, because the area
-
element, da is called
the area element for us,
-
was equal to dx dy for the
cartesian coordinate case.
-
-
And here I'm making a
weird face, I'm weird, no?
-
Saying, what am I going
to do, what is this
-
going to become for
polar coordinates?
-
-
And now you go, oh my God,
not polar coordinates.
-
Those were my
enemies in Calc II.
-
Many people told me that.
-
And I tried to go
into my time machine
-
and go back something
like 25 years ago
-
and see how I felt about
them, and I remember that.
-
I didn't get them from
the first 48 hours
-
after I was exposed to them.
-
Therefore, let's
do some preview.
-
What were those
polar coordinates?
-
Polar coordinates were
a beautiful thing,
-
these guys from trig.
-
Trig was your friend hopefully.
-
And what did we have
in trigonometry?
-
In trigonometry, we had
a point on a circle.
-
This is not the unit
trigonometric circle,
-
it's a circle of--
bless you-- radius r.
-
I'm a little bit shifted
by a phase of phi 0.
-
So you have a radius r.
-
And let's call that little r.
-
-
And then, we say, OK,
how about the angle?
-
That's the second
polar coordinate.
-
The angle by measuring
from the, what
-
is this called, the x-axis.
-
-
Origin, x-axis, o, x,
going counterclockwise,
-
because we are mathemeticians.
-
Every normal person, when
they mix into a bowl,
-
they mix like that.
-
Well, I've seen that
most of my colleagues--
-
this is just a
psychological test, OK?
-
I wanted to see
how they mix when
-
they cook, or mix
up-- most of them
-
mix in a trigonometric sense.
-
I don't know if this has
anything to do with the brain
-
connections, but I think
that's [? kind of weird. ?]
-
I don't have a statistical
result, but most of the people
-
I've seen that, and do
mathematics, mix like that.
-
So trigonometric sense.
-
What is the connection with the
actual Cartesian coordinates?
-
D you know what Cartesian
comes from as a word?
-
Cartesian, that sounds weird.
-
STUDENT: From Descartes.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Exactly.
-
Who said that?
-
Roberto, thank you so much.
-
I'm impressed.
-
Descartes was--
-
STUDENT: French.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: --a
French mathematician.
-
But actually, I mean,
he was everything.
-
He was a crazy lunatic.
-
He was a philosopher,
a mathematician,
-
a scientist in general.
-
He also knew a lot
about life science.
-
But at the time, I don't
know if this is true.
-
I should check with wiki,
or whoever can tell me.
-
One of my professors in college
told me that at that time,
-
there was a fashion
that people would
-
change their names like they
do on Facebook nowadays.
-
So they and change their
name from Francesca
-
to Frenchy, from Roberto
to Robby, from-- so
-
if they would have to
clean up Facebook and see
-
how many names correspond to
the ID, I think less than 20%.
-
At that time it was the same.
-
All of the scientists loved
to romanize their names.
-
And of course he was
of a romance language,
-
but he said, what if I
made my name a Latin name,
-
I changed my name
into a Latin name.
-
So he himself, this is what
my professor told me, he
-
himself changed his
name to Cartesius.
-
"Car-teh-see-yus" actually, in
Latin, the way it should be.
-
-
OK, very smart guy.
-
Now, when we look
a x and y, there
-
has to be a connection between
x, y as the couple, and r theta
-
as the same-- I mean a
couple, not the couple,
-
for the same point.
-
Yes, sir?
-
STUDENT: Cartesius.
-
Like meaning flat?
-
The name?
-
MAGDALENA TODA: These are
the Cartesian coordinates,
-
and it sounds like the word map.
-
I think he had meant
-
STUDENT: Because the
meaning of carte--
-
STUDENT: But look, look.
-
Descartes means from the map.
-
From the books, or from the map.
-
So he thought what his
name would really mean,
-
and so he recalled himself.
-
There was no fun, no
Twitter, no Facebook.
-
So they had to do something
to enjoy themselves.
-
Now, when it comes
to these triangles,
-
we have to think of the
relationship between x, y
-
and r, theta.
-
And could somebody tell me what
the relationship between x, y
-
and r, theta is?
-
x represents
-
STUDENT: R cosine theta.
-
STUDENT: r cosine
theta, who says that?
-
Trigonometry taught us
that, because that's
-
the adjacent side over
the hypotenuse for cosine.
-
In terms of sine, you
know what you have,
-
so you're going to have
y equals r sine theta,
-
and we have to decide
if x and y are allowed
-
to be anywhere in plane.
-
-
For the plane,
I'll also write r2.
-
R2, not R2 from the movie,
just r2 is the plane,
-
and r3 is the space,
the [? intriguing ?]
-
space, three-dimensional one.
-
r theta, is a couple where?
-
That's a little bit tricky.
-
We have to make a restriction.
-
We allow r to be anywhere
between 0 and infinity.
-
So it has to be a
positive number.
-
And theta [INTERPOSING VOICES]
between 0 and 2 pi.
-
STUDENT: I've been
sick since Tuesday.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: I
believe you, Ryan.
-
You sound sick to me.
-
Take your viruses away from me.
-
Take the germs away.
-
I don't even have
the-- I'm kidding,
-
Alex, I hope you
don't get offended.
-
So, I hope this works this time.
-
I'm making a
sarcastic-- it's really,
-
I hope you're feeling better.
-
I'm sorry about that.
-
-
So you haven't missed much.
-
Only the jokes.
-
So x equals r cosine theta,
y equals r sine theta.
-
Is that your
favorite change that
-
was a differential
mapping from the set x,
-
y to the set r,
theta back and forth.
-
-
And you are going
to probably say, OK
-
how do you denote such a map?
-
I mean, going from x,
y to r, theta and back,
-
let's suppose that we go
from r, theta to x, y,
-
and that's going to be a big if.
-
And going backwards is going
to be the inverse mapping.
-
So I'm going to
call it f inverse.
-
So that's a map from a couple
to another couple of number.
-
And you say, OK, but
why is that a map?
-
All right, guys,
now let me tell you.
-
So x, you can do x as a
function of r, theta, right?
-
It is a function of r and theta.
-
It's a function
of two variables.
-
And y is a function
of r and theta.
-
It's another function
of two variables.
-
They are both nice
and differentiable.
-
We assume not only that
they are differentiable,
-
but the partial derivatives
will be continuous.
-
So it's really
nice as a mapping.
-
And you think, could I
write the chain rule?
-
That is the whole idea.
-
What is the meaning
of differential?
-
dx differential dy.
-
Since I was chatting with
you, once, [? Yuniel ?],
-
and you asked me to
help you with homework,
-
I had to go over
differential again.
-
If you were to define,
like Mr. Leibniz did,
-
the differential of the
function x with respect
-
to both variables, that
was the sum, right?
-
You've done that
in the homework,
-
it's fresh in your mind.
-
So you get x sub r,
dr, plus f x sub what?
-
STUDENT: Theta.
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
Sub theta d-theta.
-
And somebody asked me,
what if I see skip the dr?
-
No, don't do that.
-
First of all, WeBWorK is not
going to take the answer.
-
But second of all, the
most important stuff
-
here to remember is that these
are small, infinitesimally
-
small, displacements.
-
Infinitesimally small
displacements in the directions
-
x and y, respectively.
-
So you would say, what does
that mean, infinitesimally?
-
It doesn't mean delta-x small.
-
Delta-x small would be like
me driving 7 feet, when
-
I know I have to drive fast to
Amarillo to be there in 1 hour.
-
Well, OK.
-
Don't tell anybody.
-
But, it's about 2 hours, right?
-
So I cannot be there in an hour.
-
But driving those seven
feet is like a delta x.
-
Imagine, however, me
measuring that speed of mine
-
in a much smaller
fraction of a second.
-
So shrink that time to
something infinitesimally small,
-
which is what you have here.
-
That kind of quantity.
-
And dy will be y sub r dr
plus y sub theta d-theta.
-
-
And now, I'm not going
to go by the book.
-
I'm going to go
a little bit more
-
in depth, because in the book--
First of all, let me tell you,
-
if I went by the book,
what I would come with.
-
And of course the way
we teach mathematics
-
all through K-12 and through
college is swallow this theorem
-
and believe it.
-
So practically you accept
whatever we give you
-
without controlling it, without
checking if we're right,
-
without trying to prove it.
-
Practically, the
theorem in the book
-
says that if you
have a bunch of x,
-
y that is continuous
over a domain, D,
-
and you do change
the variables over--
-
STUDENT: I forgot my glasses.
-
So I'm going to sit very close.
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
What do you wear?
-
What [INAUDIBLE]?
-
STUDENT: I couldn't tell you.
-
I can see from here.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: You can?
-
STUDENT: Yeah.
-
My vision's not terrible.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: All
right. f of x, y da.
-
If I change this da
as dx dy, let's say,
-
to a perspective
of something else
-
in terms of polar
coordinates, then
-
the integral I'm going to get is
over the corresponding domain D
-
star, whatever that would be.
-
Then I'm going to have f of
x of r theta, y of r theta,
-
everything expressed
in terms of r theta.
-
And instead of
the a-- so we just
-
feed you this piece of
cake and say, believe it,
-
believe it and leave us alone.
-
OK?
-
That's what it does in
the book in section 11.3.
-
So without understanding why
you have to-- instead of the r
-
d theta and multiply it by an r.
-
What is that?
-
You don't know why you do that.
-
And I thought, that's
the way we thought it
-
for way too many years.
-
I'm sick and tired
of not explaining why
-
you multiply that with an r.
-
So I will tell you something
that's quite interesting,
-
and something that I learned
late in graduate school.
-
I was late already.
-
I was in my 20s when I
studied differential forms
-
for the first time.
-
And differential
forms have some sort
-
of special wedge product, which
is very physical in nature.
-
So if you love physics, you
will understand more or less
-
what I'm talking about.
-
Imagine that you have two
vectors, vector a and vector b.
-
-
For these vectors,
you go, oh my God.
-
If these would be vectors in
a tangent plane to a surface,
-
you think, some
of these would be
-
tangent vectors to a surface.
-
This is the tangent
plane and everything.
-
You go, OK, if these
were infinitesimally
-
small displacements-- which they
are not, but assume they would
-
be-- how would you do the area
of the infinitesimally small
-
parallelogram that
they have between them.
-
This is actually the area
element right here, ea.
-
So instead of dx dy, you're
not going to have dx dy,
-
you're going to have some
sort of, I don't know,
-
this is like a
d-something, d u, and this
-
is a d v. And when I compute
the area of the parallelogram,
-
I consider these to
be vectors, and I
-
say, how did we get
it from the vectors
-
to the area of
the parallelogram?
-
We took the vectors,
we shook them off.
-
We made a cross product
of them, and then we
-
took the norm, the
magnitude of that.
-
Does this makes sense,
compared to this parallelogram?
-
Yeah.
-
Remember, guys, this
was like, how big
-
is du, a small
infinitesimal displacement,
-
but that would be like the
width, one of the dimensions.
-
There's the other of the
dimension of the area element
-
times-- this area element
is that tiny pixel that
-
is sitting on the surface
in the tangent plane, yeah?
-
Sine of the angle
between the guys.
-
Oh, OK.
-
So if the guys are not
perpendicular to one another,
-
if the two displacements are not
perpendicular to one another,
-
you still have to multiply
the sine of theta.
-
Otherwise you don't
get the element
-
of the area of
this parallelogram.
-
So why did the Cartesian
coordinates not pose a problem?
-
For Cartesian
coordinates, it's easy.
-
-
It's a piece of cake.
-
Why?
-
Because this is the x, this is
the y, as little tiny measures
-
multiplied.
-
How much is sine of theta
between Cartesian coordinates?
-
STUDENT: 1.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: It's 1,
because its 90 degrees.
-
When they are
orthogonal coordinates,
-
it's a piece of cake,
because you have 1 there,
-
and then your life
becomes easier.
-
-
So in general, what
is the area limit?
-
The area limit for
arbitrary coordinates--
-
So area limit for some
arbitrary coordinates
-
should be defined
as the sined area.
-
-
And you say, what do you
mean that's a sined area,
-
and why would you do that.?
-
Well, it's not so
hard to understand.
-
Imagine that you have a
convention, and you say,
-
OK, dx times dy equals
negative dy times dx.
-
And you say, what, what?
-
If you change the
order of dx dy,
-
this wedge stuff works exactly
like the-- what is that called?
-
Cross product.
-
So the wedge works just
like the cross product.
-
Just like the cross product.
-
In some other ways, suppose
that I am here, right?
-
And this is a vector, like an
infinitesimal displacement,
-
and that's the other one.
-
If I multiply them
one after the other,
-
and I use this strange wedge
[INTERPOSING VOICES] the area,
-
I'm going to have an orientation
for that tangent line,
-
and it's going to go
up, the orientation.
-
The orientation is important.
-
But if dx dy and
I switched them,
-
I said, dy, swap with dx,
what's going to happen?
-
I have to change to
change to clockwise.
-
And then the
orientation goes down.
-
And that's what they use
in mechanics when it comes
-
to the normal to the surface.
-
So again, you guys remember,
we had 2 vector products,
-
and we did the cross product,
and we got the normal.
-
If it's from this
one to this one,
-
it's counterclockwise
and goes up,
-
but if it's from this
vector to this other vector,
-
it's clockwise and goes down.
-
This is how a
mechanical engineer
-
will know how the
surface is oriented
-
based on the partial
velocities, for example
-
He has the partial
velocities along a surface,
-
and somebody says, take the
normal, take the unit normal.
-
He goes, like, are
you a physicist?
-
No, I'm an engineer.
-
You don't know how
to take the normal.
-
And of course, he knows.
-
He knows the convention
by this right-hand rule,
-
whatever you guys call it.
-
I call it the faucet rule.
-
It goes like this,
or it goes like that.
-
It's the same for a faucet,
for any type of screw,
-
for the right-hand
rule, whatever.
-
What else do you have
to believe me are true?
-
dx wedge dx is 0.
-
Can somebody tell me why
that is natural to introduce
-
such a wedge product?
-
STUDENT: Because the sine of
the angle between those is 0.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Right.
-
Once you flatten this, once
you flatten the parallelogram,
-
there is no area.
-
So the area is 0.
-
How about dy dy sined area?
-
0.
-
So these are all
the properties you
-
need to know of the
sine area, sined areas.
-
-
OK, so now let's
see what happens
-
if we take this element,
which is a differential,
-
and wedge it with this element,
which is also a differential.
-
OK.
-
Oh my God, I'm shaking
only thinking about it.
-
I'm going to get
something weird.
-
But I mean, mad weird.
-
Let's see what happens.
-
dx wedge dy equals-- do
you guys have questions?
-
Let's see what the mechanics are
for this type of computation.
-
-
I go-- this is like
a-- displacement wedge
-
this other displacement.
-
-
Think of them as true
vector displacements,
-
and as if you had a cross
product, or something.
-
OK.
-
How does this go?
-
It's distributed.
-
It's linear functions,
because we've
-
studied the
properties of vectors,
-
this acts by linearity.
-
So you go and say, first
first, times plus first times
-
second-- and times is
this guy, this weirdo--
-
plus second times first,
plus second times second,
-
where the wedge is
the operator that
-
has to satisfy these functions.
-
It's similar to
the cross product.
-
OK.
-
Then let's go x
sub r, y sub r, dr
-
wedge dr. Oh, let's 0 go away.
-
I say, leave me alone,
you're making my life hard.
-
Then I go plus x sub r--
this is a small function.
-
y sub theta, another
small function.
-
What of this
displacement, dr d theta.
-
I'm like those d
something, d something,
-
two small displacements
in the cross product.
-
OK, plus.
-
Who is telling me what next?
-
STUDENT: x theta--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: x theta
yr, d theta dr. Is it fair?
-
I did the second guy from the
first one with the first guy
-
from the second one.
-
And finally, I'm too
lazy to write it down.
-
What do I get?
-
STUDENT: 0.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: 0.
-
Why is that?
-
Because d theta,
always d theta is 0.
-
It's like you are flattening--
there is no more parallelogram.
-
OK?
-
So the two dimensions of
the parallelogram become 0.
-
The parallelogram would
become [? a secant. ?]
-
What you get is
something really weak.
-
And we don't talk
about it in the book,
-
but that's called the Jacobian.
-
dr d theta and d theta dr, once
you introduce the sine area,
-
you finally understand
why you get this r here,
-
what the Jacobian is.
-
If you don't introduce
the sine area,
-
you will never understand,
and you cannot explain it
-
to anybody, any student have.
-
OK, so this guy, d theta,
which the r is just
-
swapping the two displacements.
-
So it's going to be
minus dr d theta.
-
Why is that, guys?
-
Because that's how I said, every
time I swap two displacements,
-
I'm changing the orientation.
-
It's like the cross
product between a and b,
-
and the cross product
between b and a.
-
So I'm going up or I'm going
down, I'm changing orientation.
-
What's left in the end?
-
It's really just this
guy that's really weird.
-
I'm going to collect the terms.
-
One from here, one
from here, and a minus.
-
Go ahead.
-
STUDENT: Do the wedges
just cancel out?
-
MAGDALENA TODA: This was 0.
-
This was 0.
-
And this dr d theta is nonzero,
but is the common factor.
-
So I pull him out from here.
-
I pull him out from here.
-
Out.
-
Factor out, and what's
left is this guy over here
-
who is this guy over here.
-
And this guy over
here with a minus
-
who gives me minus d theta yr.
-
That's all.
-
So now you will understand
why I am going to get r.
-
So the general rule will
be that the area element dx
-
dy, the wedge sined
area, will be--
-
you have to help me
with this individual,
-
because he really looks weird.
-
Do you know of a name for it?
-
Do you know what
this is going to be?
-
Linear algebra people,
only two of you.
-
Maybe you have an idea.
-
So it's like, I
take this fellow,
-
and I multiply by that fellow.
-
-
Multiply these two.
-
And I go minus this
fellow times that fellow.
-
STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE]
-
MAGDALENA TODA: It's like
a determinant of something.
-
So when people write
the differential system,
-
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
51, you will understand
-
that this is a system.
-
OK?
-
It's a system of two equations.
-
-
The other little, like,
vector displacements,
-
you are going to
write it like that.
-
dx dy will be matrix
multiplication dr d theta.
-
And how do you multiply
x sub r x sub theta?
-
So you go first row times
first column give you that.
-
And second row times the
column gives you this.
-
y sub r, y sub theta.
-
This is a magic guy
called Jacobian.
-
We keep this a secret, and
most Professors don't even
-
cover 12.8, because
they don't want to tell
-
people what a Jacobian is.
-
This is little r.
-
I know you don't believe me, but
the determinant of this matrix
-
must be little r.
-
You have to help me prove that.
-
And this is the Jacobian.
-
Do you guys know why
it's called Jacobian?
-
It's the determinant
of this matrix.
-
Let's call this
matrix J. And this
-
is J, determinant
of [? scripture. ?]
-
This is called Jacobian.
-
-
Why is it r?
-
Let's-- I don't know.
-
Let's see how we do it.
-
-
This is r cosine theta, right?
-
This is r sine theta.
-
So dx must be what x sub r?
-
X sub r, x sub r, cosine theta.
-
d plus.
-
What is x sub t?
-
-
x sub theta.
-
I need to differentiate
this with respect to theta.
-
STUDENT: It's going to
be negative r sine theta.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Minus r
sine theta, very good.
-
And d theta.
-
Then I go dy was
sine theta-- dr,
-
I'm looking at these
equations, and I'm
-
repeating them for my case.
-
This is true in general for
any kind of coordinates.
-
So it's a general equation
for any kind of coordinate,
-
two coordinates,
two coordinates,
-
any kind of
coordinates in plane,
-
you can choose any
functions, f of uv, g of uv,
-
whatever you want.
-
But for this particular
case of polar coordinates
-
is going to look really
pretty in the end.
-
What do I get when I do y theta?
-
r cosine theta.
-
Am I right, guys?
-
Keen an eye on it.
-
So this will become-- the
area element will become what?
-
The determinant of this matrix.
-
Red, red, red, red.
-
How do I compute a term?
-
Not everybody knows,
and it's this times
-
that minus this times that.
-
OK, let's do that.
-
So I get r cosine squared
theta minus minus plus r sine
-
squared theta.
-
dr, d theta, and our wedge.
-
What is this?
-
STUDENT: 1.
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
Jacobian is r times 1,
-
because that's the
Pythagorean theorem, right?
-
So we have r, and this is
the meaning of r, here.
-
So when I moved from dx dy,
I originally had the wedge
-
that I didn't tell you about.
-
And this wedge
becomes r dr d theta,
-
and that's the
correct way to explain
-
why you get the Jacobian there.
-
We don't do that in the book.
-
We do it later, and we
sort of smuggle through.
-
We don't do a very thorough job.
-
When you go into
advanced calculus,
-
you would see that again the
way I explained it to you.
-
If you ever want to
go to graduate school,
-
then you need to take the
Advanced Calculus I, 4350
-
and 4351 where you are
going to learn about this.
-
If you take those as a math
major or engineering major,
-
it doesn't matter.
-
When you go to
graduate school, they
-
don't make you take
advanced calculus again
-
at graduate school.
-
So it's somewhere borderline
between senior year
-
and graduate school, it's like
the first course you would take
-
in graduate school, for many.
-
OK.
-
So an example of
this transformation
-
where we know what
we are talking about.
-
Let's say I have
a picture, and I
-
have a domain D, which
is-- this is x squared
-
plus y squared equals 1.
-
I have the domain as being
[INTERPOSING VOICES].
-
-
And then I say, I would
like-- what would I like?
-
I would like the
volume of the-- this
-
is a paraboloid, z equals
x squared plus y squared.
-
I would like the
volume of this object.
-
This is my obsession.
-
I'm going to create a
vase some day like that.
-
So you want this
piece to be a solid.
-
In cross section,
it will just this.
-
In cross section.
-
And it's a solid of revolution.
-
In this cross section,
you have to imagine
-
revolving it around the z-axis,
then creating a heavy object.
-
From the outside, don't
see what's inside.
-
It looks like a cylinder.
-
But you go inside and
you see the valley.
-
So it's between a
paraboloid and a disc,
-
a unit disc on the floor.
-
How are we going
to try and do that?
-
And what did I
teach you last time?
-
Last time, I taught you that--
we have to go over a domain D.
-
But that domain
D, unfortunately,
-
is hard to express.
-
How would you express D
in Cartesian coordinates?
-
-
You can do it.
-
It's going to be a headache.
-
x is between minus 1 and 1.
-
Am I right, guys?
-
And y will be between--
now I have two branches.
-
One, and the other one.
-
One branch would be square--
I hate square roots.
-
I absolutely hate them.
-
y is between 1 minus
square root x squared,
-
minus square root
1 minus x squared.
-
So if I were to ask you to do
the integral like last time,
-
how would you set
up the integral?
-
You go, OK, I know what this is.
-
Integral over D of
f of x, y, dx dy.
-
This is actually a wedge.
-
In my case, we avoided that.
-
We said dh.
-
And we said, what is f of x, y?
-
x squared plus y
squared, because I
-
want everything that's under
the graph, not above the graph.
-
So everything that's
under the graph.
-
F of x, y is this guy.
-
And the I have to
start thinking,
-
because it's a type 1 or type 2?
-
It's a type 1 the
way I set it up,
-
but I can make it
type 2 by reversing
-
the order of integration
like I did last time.
-
If I treat it like
that, it's going
-
to be type 1, though, right?
-
So I have to put
dy first, and then
-
change the color of the dx.
-
And since mister y
is the purple guy,
-
y would be going between
these ugly square roots that
-
to go on my nerves.
-
-
And then x goes
between minus 1 and 1.
-
It's a little bit of a headache.
-
Why is it a headache, guys?
-
Let's anticipate what we need to
do if we do it like last time.
-
We need to integrate this
ugly fellow in terms of y,
-
and when we integrate this in
terms of y, what do we get?
-
Don't write it, because
it's going to be a mess.
-
We get x squared times
y plus y cubed over 3.
-
And then, instead of y, I have
to replace those square roots,
-
and I'll never get rid
of the square roots.
-
It's going to be a mess, indeed.
-
And I may even-- in
general, I may not even
-
be able to solve the
integral, and that's
-
a bit headache,
because I'll start
-
crying, I'll get depressed,
I'll take Prozac, whatever
-
you take for depression.
-
I don't know, I never took it,
because I'm never depressed.
-
So what do you do in that case?
-
STUDENT: Switch to polar.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: You
switch to polar.
-
So you use this big polar-switch
theorem, the theorem that
-
tells you, be smart,
apply this theorem,
-
and have to understand that
the D, which was this expressed
-
in [INTERPOSING VOICES]
Cartesian coordinates
-
is D. If you want express
the same thing as D star,
-
D star will be in
polar coordinates.
-
You have to be a little bit
smarter, and say r theta,
-
where now you have to put
the bounds that limit--
-
STUDENT: r.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: r from?
-
STUDENT: 0 to 1.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: 0
to 1, excellent.
-
You cannot let r go to
infinity, because the vase is
-
increasingly.
-
You only needs the vase that
has the radius 1 on the bottom.
-
So r is 0 to 1, and
theta is 0 to 1 pi.
-
And there you have
your domain this time.
-
So I need to be smart
and say integral.
-
Integral, what do
you want to do first?
-
Well, it doesn't matter, dr,
d theta, whatever you want.
-
So mister theta will
be the last of the two.
-
So theta will be between 0
and 2 pi, a complete rotation.
-
r between 0 and 1.
-
And inside here I
have to be smart
-
and see that life
can be fun when
-
I work with polar coordinates.
-
Why?
-
What is the integral?
-
x squared plus y squared.
-
I've seen him
somewhere before when
-
it came to polar coordinates.
-
STUDENT: R squared.
-
STUDENT: That will be r squared.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: That
will be r squared.
-
r squared times-- never
forget the Jacobian,
-
and the Jacobian is mister r.
-
And now I'm going to
take all this integral.
-
I'll finally compute
the volume of my vase.
-
Imagine if this vase
would be made of gold.
-
This is my dream.
-
So imagine that this
vase would have,
-
I don't know what dimensions.
-
I need to find the
volume, and multiply it
-
by the density of gold
and find out-- yes, sir?
-
STUDENT: Professor, like in this
question, b time is dt by dr,
-
but you can't switch it--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Yes, you can.
-
That's exactly my point.
-
I'll tell you in a second.
-
When can you replace d theta dr?
-
You can always do that when
you have something under here,
-
which is a big
function of theta times
-
a bit function of r, because
you can treat them differently.
-
We will work about this later.
-
Now, this has no theta.
-
So actually, the
theta is not going
-
to affect your computation.
-
Let's not even think about
theta for the time being.
-
What you have inside is Calculus
I. When you have a product,
-
you can always switch.
-
And I'll give you
a theorem later.
-
0 over 1, r cubed,
thank God, this
-
is Calc I. Integral
from 0 to 1, r
-
cubed dr. That's Calc
I. How much is that?
-
I'm lazy.
-
I don't want to do it.
-
STUDENT: 1/4.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: It's 1/4.
-
Very good.
-
Thank you.
-
And if I get further, and I'm a
little bi lazy, what do I get?
-
1/4 is the constant,
it pulls out.
-
STUDENT: So, they don't--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: So I get 2 pi
over 4, which is pi over 2.
-
Am I right?
-
STUDENT: Yeah.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: So
this constant gets out,
-
integral comes in through 2 pi.
-
It will be 2 pi, and
this is my answer.
-
So pi over 2 is the volume.
-
If I have a 1-inch
diameter, and I
-
have this vase made of gold,
which is a piece of jewelry,
-
really beautiful, then I'm going
to have pi over 2 the volume.
-
That will be a little
bit hard to see
-
what we have in square inches.
-
We have 1.5-something
square inches, and then--
-
STUDENT: More.
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
And then multiply
-
by the density of
gold, and estimate,
-
based on the mass, how much
money that's going to be.
-
What did I want to
tell [? Miteish? ?]
-
I don't want to forget what
he asked me, because that
-
was a smart question.
-
When can we reverse the
order of integration?
-
In general, it's
hard to compute.
-
But in this case, I'm you
are the luckiest person
-
in the world, because
just take a look at me.
-
I have, let's see, my
r between 0 and 2 pi,
-
and my theta between 0 and 2
pi, and my r between 0 and 1.
-
Whatever, it doesn't matter,
it could be anything.
-
And here I have a function of r
and a function g of theta only.
-
And it's a product.
-
The variables are separate.
-
When I do-- what do I
do for dr or d theta?
-
dr. When I do dr--
with respect to dr,
-
this fellow goes, I
don't belong in here.
-
I'm mister theta that
doesn't belong in here.
-
I'm independent.
-
I want to go out.
-
And he wants out.
-
So you have some integrals
that you got out a g of theta,
-
and another integral, and you
have f of r dr in a bracket,
-
and then you go d theta.
-
What is going to happen next?
-
You solve this integral, and
it's going to be a number.
-
This number could be 8,
7, 9.2, God knows what.
-
Why don't you pull that
constant out right now?
-
So you say, OK, I can do that.
-
It's just a number.
-
Whatever.
-
That's going to be
integral f dr, times
-
what do you have left
when you pull that out?
-
A what?
-
STUDENT: Integral.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Integral of
G, the integral of g of theta,
-
d theta.
-
So we just proved a theorem
that is really pretty.
-
If you have to integrate,
and I will try to do it here.
-
-
No--
-
STUDENT: So essentially, when
you're integrating with respect
-
to r, you can treat any function
of only theta as a constant?
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Yeah.
-
I'll tell you in a second
what it means, because--
-
STUDENT: Sorry.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: You're fine.
-
Integrate for domain,
rectangular domains,
-
let's say u between alpha,
beta, u between gamma,
-
delta, then what's
going to happen?
-
As you said very well,
integral from-- what
-
do you want first, dv or du?
-
dv, du, it doesn't matter.
-
v is between gamma, delta.
-
v is the first guy inside, OK.
-
Gamma, delta.
-
I should have cd.
-
It's all Greek to me.
-
Why did I pick
that three people?
-
If this is going to be a product
of two functions, one is in u
-
and one is in v. Let's
say A of u and B of v,
-
I can go ahead and say
product of two constants.
-
And who are those two
constants I was referring to?
-
You can do that directly.
-
If the two variables are
separated through a product,
-
you have a product of
two separate variables.
-
A is only in u, it
depends only on u.
-
And B is only on v. They have
nothing to do with one another.
-
Then you can go ahead and do
the first integral with respect
-
to u only of a of u, du,
u between alpha, beta.
-
That was your first variable.
-
Times this other constant.
-
Integral of B of v,
where v is moving,
-
v is moving between
gamma, delta.
-
Instead of alpha,
beta, gamma, delta,
-
put any numbers you want.
-
OK?
-
This is the lucky case.
-
So you're always hoping
that on the final,
-
you can get something
where you can separate.
-
Here you have no theta.
-
This is the luckiest
case in the world.
-
So it's just r
cubed times theta.
-
But you can still
have a lucky case
-
when you have something
like a function of r
-
times a function of theta.
-
And then you have
another beautiful polar
-
coordinate integral
that you're not going
-
to struggle with for very long.
-
OK, I'm going to erase here.
-
-
For example, let me
give you another one.
-
Suppose that somebody
was really mean to you,
-
and wanted to kill
you in the final,
-
and they gave you the
following problem.
-
-
Assume the domain D-- they
don't even tell you what it is.
-
They just want to
challenge you--
-
will be x, y with the
property that x squared plus y
-
squared is between a 1 and a 4.
-
-
Compute the integral over D of
r [? pan ?] of y over x and da,
-
where bi would be ds dy.
-
So you look at this
cross-eyed and say, gosh,
-
whoever-- we don't do that.
-
But I've seen schools.
-
I've seen this given at a
school, when they covered
-
this particular
example, they've covered
-
something like the previous
one that I showed you.
-
But they never covered this.
-
And they said,
OK, they're smart,
-
let them figure this out.
-
And I think it was Texas A&M.
They gave something like that
-
without working this in class.
-
They assumed that
the students should
-
be good enough to
figure out what
-
this is in polar coordinates.
-
So in polar coordinates,
what does the theorem say?
-
We should switch to a domain
D star that corresponds to D.
-
Now, D was given like that.
-
But we have to say
the corresponding D
-
star, reinterpreted
in polar coordinates,
-
r theta has to be also
written beautifully out.
-
Unless you draw the picture,
first of all, you cannot do it.
-
So the prof at Texas A&M didn't
even say, draw the picture,
-
and think of the
meaning of that.
-
What is the meaning of
this set, geometric set,
-
geometric locus of points.
-
STUDENT: You've
got a circle sub-
-
MAGDALENA TODA: You
have concentric circles,
-
sub-radius 1 and 2, and it's
like a ring, it's an annulus.
-
And he said, well,
I didn't do it.
-
I mean they were smart.
-
I gave it to them to do.
-
So if the students don't see
at least an example like that,
-
they have difficulty,
in my experience.
-
OK, for this kind
of annulus, you
-
see the radius would start
here, but the dotted part
-
is not included in your domain.
-
So you have to be smart and
say, wait a minute, my radius
-
is not starting at 0.
-
It's starting at 1
and it's ending at 2.
-
And I put that here.
-
And theta is the whole
ring, so from 0 to 2 pi.
-
-
Whether you do that
over the open set,
-
that's called annulus
without the boundaries,
-
or you do it about the
one with the boundaries,
-
it doesn't matter, the integral
is not going to change.
-
And you are going to learn
that in Advanced Calculus, why
-
it doesn't matter that if
you remove the boundary,
-
you put back the boundary.
-
That is a certain set of a
measure 0 for your integration.
-
It's not going to
change your results.
-
So no matter how you
express it-- maybe
-
you want to express
it like an open set.
-
You still have
the same integral.
-
Double integral
of D star, this is
-
going to give me a headache,
unless you help me.
-
What is this in
polar coordinates?
-
STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE]
-
-
MAGDALENA TODA: I
know when-- once I've
-
figured out the
integrand, I'm going
-
to remember to always
multiply by an r,
-
because if I don't,
I'm in big trouble.
-
And then I go dr d theta.
-
But I don't know what this is.
-
STUDENT: r.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Nope, but
you're-- so r cosine theta is
-
x, r sine theta is y.
-
When you do y over
x, what do you get?
-
Always tangent of theta.
-
And if you do arctangent
of tangent, you get theta.
-
So that was not hard,
but the students did
-
not-- in that
class, I was talking
-
to whoever gave the exam,
70-something percent
-
of the students did
not know how to do it,
-
because they had never
seen something similar,
-
and they didn't think how
to express this theta in r.
-
So what do we mean to do?
-
We mean, is this a product?
-
It's a beautiful product.
-
They are separate variables like
[INAUDIBLE] [? shafts. ?] Now,
-
you see, you can separate them.
-
The r is between 1 and 2,
so I can do-- eventually I
-
can do the r first.
-
And theta is between 0 and
2 pi, and as I taught you
-
by the previous theorem, you
can separate the two integrals,
-
because this one gets out.
-
It's a constant.
-
So you're left with integral
from 0 to 2 pi theta d
-
theta, and the integral from 1
to 2 r dr. r dr theta d theta.
-
This should be a piece of cake.
-
The only thing we have to
do is some easy Calculus I.
-
So what is integral
of theta d theta?
-
I'm not going to rush anywhere.
-
Theta squared over 2
between theta equals 0 down
-
and theta equals 2 pi up.
-
Right?
-
STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE]
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Yeah.
-
I'll do that later.
-
I don't care.
-
This is going to be r squared
over 2 between 1 and 2.
-
So the numerical
answer, if I know
-
how to do any math like
that, is going to be--
-
STUDENT: 2 pi squared.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: 2 pi
squared, because I
-
have 4 pi squared over
2, so the first guy
-
is 2 pi squared, times-- I
get a 4 and 4 minus 1-- are
-
you guys with me?
-
So I get a-- let me
write it like that.
-
4 over 2 minus 1 over 2.
-
What's going to
happen to the over 2?
-
We'll simplify.
-
So this is going
to be 3 pi squared.
-
Okey Dokey?
-
Yes, sir?
-
STUDENT: How did you split it
into two integrals, right here?
-
MAGDALENA TODA: That's exactly
what I taught you before.
-
So if I had not
taught you before,
-
how did I prove that theorem?
-
The theorem that was
before was like that.
-
What was it?
-
Suppose I have a function of
theta, and a function of r,
-
and I have d theta
dr. And I think
-
this weather got to us,
because several people have
-
the cold and the flu.
-
Wash your hands a lot.
-
It's full of--
mathematicians full of germs.
-
So theta, you want theta to
be between whatever you want.
-
Any two numbers.
-
Alpha and beta.
-
And r between gamma, delta.
-
This is what I
explained last time.
-
So when you integrate with
respect to theta first inside,
-
g of r says I have nothing
to do with these guys.
-
They're not my type,
they're not my gang.
-
I'm going out, have
a beer by myself.
-
So he goes out and
joins the r group,
-
because theta and r
have nothing in common.
-
They are separate variables.
-
This is a function
of r only, and that's
-
a function of theta only.
-
This is what I'm talking about.
-
OK, so that's a constant.
-
That constant pulls out.
-
So in the end, what you have is
that constant that pulled out
-
is going to be alpha, beta, f of
beta d theta as a number, times
-
what's left inside?
-
Integral from gamma
to delta g of r
-
dr. So when the two functions
F and G are functions of theta,
-
respectively, r only, they have
nothing to do with one another,
-
and you can write
the original integral
-
as the product of integrals,
and it's really a lucky case.
-
But you are going to encounter
this lucky case many times
-
in your final, in the midterm,
in-- OK, now thinking of what
-
I wanted to put on the midterm.
-
-
Somebody asked me if I'm going
to put-- they looked already
-
at the homework and at the
book, and they asked me,
-
are we going to have something
like the area of the cardioid?
-
Maybe not necessarily
that-- or area
-
between a cardioid and a circle
that intersect each other.
-
Those were doable
even with Calc II.
-
Something like that, that
was doable with Calc II,
-
I don't want to do it with a
double integral in Calc III,
-
and I want to give some problems
that are relevant to you guys.
-
-
The question, what's going
to be on the midterm?
-
is not-- OK, what's going
to be on the midterm?
-
It's going to be something
very similar to the sample
-
that I'm going to write.
-
And I have already
included in that sample
-
the volume of a
sphere of radius r.
-
So how do you compute out
the weight-- exercise 3 or 4,
-
whatever that is-- we compute
the volume of a sphere using
-
double integrals.
-
-
I don't know if we have time to
do this problem, but if we do,
-
that will be the last problem--
when you ask you teacher,
-
why is the volume inside the
sphere, volume of a ball,
-
actually.
-
Well, the size-- the solid ball.
-
Why is it 4 pi r cubed over 2?
-
Your, did she tell
you, or she told
-
you something that you asked,
Mr. [? Jaime ?], for example?
-
They were supposed to tell
you that you can prove that
-
with Calc II or Calc III.
-
It's not easy.
-
It's not an elementary formula.
-
In the ancient
times, they didn't
-
know how to do it, because
they didn't know calculus.
-
So what they tried to is
to approximate it and see
-
how it goes.
-
Assume you have the
sphere of radius r,
-
and r is from here
to here, and I'm
-
going to go ahead and draw the
equator, the upper hemisphere,
-
the lower hemisphere, and
you shouldn't help me,
-
because isn't enough to say
it's twice the upper hemisphere
-
volume, right?
-
So if I knew the--
what is this called?
-
If I knew the
expression z equals
-
f of x, y of the spherical
cap of the hemisphere,
-
of the northern hemisphere,
I would be in business.
-
So if somebody even
tries-- one of my students,
-
I gave him that, he didn't know
polar coordinates very well,
-
so what he tried to do,
he was trying to do,
-
let's say z is going
to be square root of r
-
squared minus z squared minus
y squared over the domain.
-
So D will be what
domain? x squared
-
plus y squared between 0 and
r squared, am I right guys?
-
So the D is on
the floor, means x
-
squared plus y squared
between 0 and r squared.
-
This is the D that we have.
-
This is D So twice what?
-
f of x, y.
-
-
The volume of the
upper hemisphere
-
is the volume of everything
under this graph, which
-
is like a half.
-
It's the northern hemisphere.
-
dx dy, whatever is dx.
-
So he tried to do
it, and he came up
-
with something very ugly.
-
Of course you can imagine
what he came up with.
-
What would it be?
-
I don't know.
-
Oh, God.
-
x between minus r to r.
-
y would be between 0
and-- you have to draw it.
-
STUDENT: It's
going to be 0 or r.
-
STUDENT: Yeah.
-
STUDENT: Oh, no.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: So x
is between minus r--
-
STUDENT: It's going to
be as a function of x.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: And this is x.
-
And it's a function of x.
-
And then you go square root
r squared minus x squared.
-
It looks awful in
Cartesian coordinates.
-
And then for f, he just
plugged in that thingy,
-
and he said dy dx.
-
And he would be
right, except that I
-
would get a headache
just looking
-
at it, because it's a mess.
-
It's a horrible, horrible mess.
-
I don't like it.
-
So how am I going to solve
this in polar coordinates?
-
I still have the 2.
-
I cannot get rid of the 2.
-
How do I express--
in polar coordinates,
-
the 2 would be one for the upper
part, one for the lower part--
-
How do I express in polar
coordinates the disc?
-
Rho or r.
-
r between 0 to R, and theta,
all the way from 0 to 2 pi.
-
So I'm still sort of lucky
that I'm in business.
-
I go 0 to 2 pi
integral from 0 to r,
-
and for that guy, that
is in the integrand,
-
I'm going to say squared of z.
-
z is r squared minus-- who
is z squared plus y squared
-
in polar coordinates?
-
r squared. very good. r squared.
-
Don't forget that
instead of dy dx,
-
you have to say times r,
the Jacobian, dr d theta.
-
Can we solve this, and
find the correct formula?
-
That's what I'm talking about.
-
We need the u substitution.
-
Without the u substitution,
we will be dead meat.
-
But I don't know how
to do u substitution,
-
so I need your help.
-
Of course you can help me.
-
Who is the constant?
-
R is the constant.
-
It's a number.
-
Little r is a variable.
-
Little r is a variable.
-
-
STUDENT: r squared
is going to be the u.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: u, very good.
-
r squared minus r squared.
-
How come this is
working so well?
-
Look why du will be
constant prime 0 minus 2rdr.
-
-
So I take this couple
called rdr, this block,
-
and I identify the
block over here.
-
And rdr represents du
over minus 2, right?
-
So I have to be
smart and attentive,
-
because if I make a mistake
at the end, it's all over.
-
So 2 tiomes integral
from 0 to 2 pi.
-
I could get rid of
that and say just 2 pi.
-
Are you guys with me?
-
I could say 1 is theta-- as
the product, go out-- times--
-
and this is my integral that
I'm worried about, the one only
-
in r.
-
Let me review it.
-
-
This is the only one
I'm worried about.
-
This is a piece of cake.
-
This is 2, this is 2 pi.
-
This whole thing is 4 pi a.
-
At least I got some 4 pi out.
-
What have I done in here?
-
I've applied the u
substitution, and I
-
have to be doing a better job.
-
I get 4 pi times what is
it after u substitution.
-
This guy was minus
1/2 du, right?
-
This fellow is squared
u, [? squared ?]
-
squared u as a power.
-
STUDENT: u to the 1/2.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: u
to the one half.
-
And for the integral, what
in the world do I write?
-
STUDENT: r squared--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: OK.
-
So when little r is 0, u
is going to be r squared.
-
When little r is
big R, you get 0.
-
Now you have to
help me finish this.
-
It should be a piece of cake.
-
I cannot believe it's hard.
-
What is the integral of 4 pi?
-
Copy and paste.
-
Minus 1/2, integrate
y to the 1/2.
-
STUDENT: 2/3u to the 3/2.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: 2/3 u to the
3/2, between u equals 0 up,
-
and u equals r squared down.
-
It still looks bad, but--
-
STUDENT: You've got
a negative sign.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: I've
got a negative sign.
-
STUDENT: Where is it--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: So when
I go this minus that,
-
it's going to be very nice.
-
Why?
-
I'm going to say minus 4
pi over 2 times 2 over 3.
-
I should have simplified
them from the beginning.
-
I have minus 5 pi over
3 times at 0 I have 0.
-
At r squared, I have r
squared, and the square root
-
is r, r cubed.
-
r cubed.
-
-
Oh my God, look how
beautiful it is.
-
Two minuses in a row.
-
Multiply, give me a plus.
-
STUDENT: This is the answer.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Plus.
-
4 pi up over 3 down, r cubed.
-
So we proved something
that is essential,
-
and we knew it from
when we were in school,
-
but they told us that
we cannot prove it,
-
because we couldn't prove that
the volume of a ball was 4 pi r
-
cubed over 3.
-
Yes, sir?
-
STUDENT: Why are the limits
of integration reversed?
-
Why is r squared on the bottom?
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Because
first comes little r, 0,
-
and then comes little r to
be big R. When I plug them
-
in in this order-- so
let's plug them in first,
-
little r equals 0.
-
I get, for the bottom part,
I get u equals r squared,
-
and when little
r equals big R, I
-
get big R squared minus
big R squared equals 0.
-
And that's the good
thing, because when
-
I do that, I get a minus, and
with the minus I already had,
-
I get a plus.
-
And the volume is a positive
volume, like every volume.
-
4 pi [INAUDIBLE].
-
So that's it for today.
-
We finished 12-- what is that?
-
12.3, polar coordinates.
-
And we will next time
do some homework.
-
Ah, I opened the
homework for you.
-
So go ahead and do at least
the first 10 problems.
-
If you have difficulties,
let me know on Tuesday,
-
so we can work some in class.
-
STUDENT: [? You do ?] so much.
-
STUDENT: So, I went to the
[INAUDIBLE], and I asked them,
-
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
-
-
[SIDE CONVERSATION]
-
-
STUDENT: Can you
imagine two years
-
of a calculus that's the
equivalent to [? American ?]
-
and only two credits?
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
Because in your system,
-
everything was pretty
much accelerated.
-
STUDENT: Yeah, and
they say, no, no, no--
-
I had to ask him again.
-
[INAUDIBLE] calculus,
in two years,
-
that is only equivalent
to two credits.
-
I was like--
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
Anyway, what happens
-
is that we used to have
very good evaluators
-
in the registrar's office, and
most of those people retired
-
or they got promoted in other
administrative positions.
-
So they have three new hires.
-
Those guys, they don't
know what they are doing.
-
Imagine, you would
finish, graduate, today,
-
next week, you go
for the registrar.
-
You don't know
what you're doing.
-
You need time.
-
Yes?
-
STUDENT: I had a question
about the homework.
-
I'll wait for [INAUDIBLE].
-
MAGDALENA TODA: It's OK.
-
Do you have secrets?
-
STUDENT: No, I don't.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Homework
is due the 32st.
-
STUDENT: No, I had a
question from the homework.
-
Like I had a problem that I
was working on, and I was like
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
From the homework.
-
OK You can wait.
-
You guys have other,
more basic questions?
-
[INTERPOSING VOICES]
-
-
MAGDALENA TODA: There
is only one meeting.
-
Oh, you mean-- Ah.
-
Yes, I do.
-
I have the following
three-- Tuesday,
-
Wednesday, and Friday-
no, Tuesday, Wednesday,
-
and Thursday.
-
On Friday we can have something,
some special arrangement.
-
This Friday?
-
OK, how about like 11:15.
-
Today, I have--
I have right now.
-
2:00.
-
And I think the grad
students will come later.
-
So you can just right now.
-
And tomorrow around 11:15,
because I have meetings
-
before 11 at the college.
-
STUDENT: Do you mind if I go
get something to eat first?
-
Or how long do you think
they'll be in your office?
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
Even if they come,
-
I'm going to stop
them and talk to you,
-
so don't worry about it.
-
STUDENT: Thank you very much.
-
I'll see you later.
-
STUDENT: I just wanted to say
I'm sorry for coming in late.
-
I slept in a little
bit this morning--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Did you
get the chance to sign?
-
STUDENT: Yes.
-
MAGDALENA TODA:
There is no problem.
-
I'm--
-
STUDENT: I woke up at like
12:30-- I woke up at like 11:30
-
and I just fell right back
asleep, and then I got up
-
and I looked at my
phone and it was 12:30,
-
and I was like, I
have class right now.
-
And so what happened was like--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: You were tired.
-
You were doing
homework until late.
-
STUDENT: --homework
and like, I usually
-
am on for an
earlier class, and I
-
didn't go to bed earlier
than I did last night,
-
and so I just overslept.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: I
did the same, anyway.
-
I have similar experience.
-
STUDENT: You have
a very nice day.
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Thank you.
-
You too.
-
So, show me what
you want to ask.
-
STUDENT: There it was.
-
I looked at that
problem, and I thought,
-
that's extremely
simple, acceleration--
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Are they
independent, really?
-
STUDENT: Huh?
-
MAGDALENA TODA: Are they--
b and t are independent?
-
I need to stop.
-
STUDENT: But I
didn't even bother.