0:00:00.627,0:00:02.239 I was born in Den Bosch, 0:00:02.263,0:00:05.600 where the painter Hieronymus Bosch[br]named himself after. 0:00:05.624,0:00:08.047 And I've always been very fond[br]of this painter 0:00:08.071,0:00:10.556 who lived and worked in the 15th century. 0:00:10.580,0:00:13.276 And what is interesting about him[br]in relation to morality 0:00:13.300,0:00:16.355 is that he lived at a time[br]where religion's influence was waning, 0:00:16.379,0:00:18.196 and he was sort of wondering, I think, 0:00:18.220,0:00:20.810 what would happen with society[br]if there was no religion 0:00:20.834,0:00:22.294 or if there was less religion. 0:00:22.318,0:00:25.772 And so he painted this famous painting,[br]"The Garden of Earthly Delights," 0:00:25.796,0:00:29.655 which some have interpreted[br]as being humanity before the Fall, 0:00:29.679,0:00:32.917 or being humanity without any Fall at all. 0:00:32.941,0:00:34.229 And so it makes you wonder, 0:00:34.253,0:00:37.752 what would happen if we hadn't tasted[br]the fruit of knowledge, so to speak, 0:00:37.776,0:00:39.976 and what kind of morality would we have. 0:00:41.289,0:00:44.299 Much later, as a student,[br]I went to a very different garden, 0:00:44.323,0:00:48.991 a zoological garden in Arnhem[br]where we keep chimpanzees. 0:00:49.015,0:00:52.141 This is me at an early age[br]with a baby chimpanzee. 0:00:52.165,0:00:54.850 (Laughter) 0:00:54.874,0:00:56.593 And I discovered there 0:00:56.617,0:00:59.873 that the chimpanzees are very power-hungry[br]and wrote a book about it. 0:00:59.897,0:01:02.424 And at that time the focus[br]in a lot of animal research 0:01:02.448,0:01:04.875 was on aggression and competition. 0:01:04.899,0:01:07.156 I painted a whole picture[br]of the animal kingdom 0:01:07.180,0:01:12.378 and humanity included, was that deep down[br]we are competitors, we are aggressive, 0:01:12.402,0:01:15.455 we are all out[br]for our own profit, basically. 0:01:15.479,0:01:17.351 This is the launch of my book. 0:01:17.375,0:01:19.759 I'm not sure how well[br]the chimpanzees read it, 0:01:19.783,0:01:22.454 but they surely seemed[br]interested in the book. 0:01:22.478,0:01:24.683 (Laughter) 0:01:24.707,0:01:27.618 Now in the process of doing all this work 0:01:27.642,0:01:30.542 on power and dominance[br]and aggression and so on, 0:01:30.566,0:01:33.749 I discovered that chimpanzees[br]reconcile after fights. 0:01:33.773,0:01:36.559 And so what you see here[br]is two males who have had a fight. 0:01:36.583,0:01:39.927 They ended up in a tree, and one of them[br]holds out a hand to the other. 0:01:39.951,0:01:42.021 And about a second[br]after I took the picture, 0:01:42.045,0:01:44.106 they came together in the fork of the tree 0:01:44.130,0:01:45.846 and kissed and embraced each other. 0:01:45.870,0:01:47.214 And this is very interesting 0:01:47.238,0:01:50.535 because at the time, everything[br]was about competition and aggression, 0:01:50.559,0:01:52.053 so it wouldn't make any sense. 0:01:52.077,0:01:54.713 The only thing that matters[br]is that you win or you lose. 0:01:54.737,0:01:57.674 But why reconcile after a fight?[br]That doesn't make any sense. 0:01:57.698,0:02:00.696 This is the way bonobos do it.[br]Bonobos do everything with sex. 0:02:00.720,0:02:02.534 And so they also reconcile with sex. 0:02:02.558,0:02:04.484 But the principle is exactly the same. 0:02:04.508,0:02:08.483 The principle is that you have[br]a valuable relationship 0:02:08.507,0:02:12.597 that is damaged by conflict,[br]so you need to do something about it. 0:02:12.621,0:02:16.988 So my whole picture of the animal kingdom,[br]and including humans also, 0:02:17.012,0:02:18.591 started to change at that time. 0:02:18.975,0:02:22.954 So we have this image in political[br]science, economics, the humanities, 0:02:22.978,0:02:26.836 the philosophy for that matter,[br]that man is a wolf to man. 0:02:26.860,0:02:29.544 And so deep down,[br]our nature is actually nasty. 0:02:29.973,0:02:32.891 I think it's a very unfair[br]image for the wolf. 0:02:32.915,0:02:36.361 The wolf is, after all,[br]a very cooperative animal. 0:02:36.385,0:02:38.639 And that's why many of you[br]have a dog at home, 0:02:38.663,0:02:40.882 which has all these characteristics also. 0:02:40.906,0:02:42.701 And it's really unfair to humanity, 0:02:42.725,0:02:45.976 because humanity is actually[br]much more cooperative and empathic 0:02:46.000,0:02:48.187 than given credit for. 0:02:48.211,0:02:50.471 So I started getting[br]interested in those issues 0:02:50.495,0:02:52.280 and studying that in other animals. 0:02:52.830,0:02:54.684 So these are the pillars of morality. 0:02:54.708,0:02:58.260 If you ask anyone,[br]"What is morality based on?" 0:02:58.284,0:03:00.479 these are the two factors[br]that always come out. 0:03:00.503,0:03:02.210 One is reciprocity, 0:03:02.234,0:03:05.789 and associated with it is a sense[br]of justice and a sense of fairness. 0:03:05.813,0:03:08.006 And the other one is empathy[br]and compassion. 0:03:08.030,0:03:12.281 And human morality is more than this,[br]but if you would remove these two pillars, 0:03:12.305,0:03:14.434 there would be not much[br]remaining, I think. 0:03:14.458,0:03:16.113 So they're absolutely essential. 0:03:16.137,0:03:18.005 So let me give you a few examples here. 0:03:18.029,0:03:20.729 This is a very old video[br]from the Yerkes Primate Center, 0:03:20.753,0:03:23.076 where they trained[br]chimpanzees to cooperate. 0:03:23.745,0:03:26.191 So this is already[br]about a hundred years ago 0:03:26.215,0:03:29.307 that we were doing[br]experiments on cooperation. 0:03:29.331,0:03:32.863 What you have here is two[br]young chimpanzees who have a box, 0:03:32.887,0:03:35.892 and the box is too heavy[br]for one chimp to pull in. 0:03:35.916,0:03:37.775 And of course, there's food on the box. 0:03:37.799,0:03:39.800 Otherwise they wouldn't[br]be pulling so hard. 0:03:39.824,0:03:41.937 And so they're bringing in the box. 0:03:41.961,0:03:44.230 And you can see that they're synchronized. 0:03:44.254,0:03:47.354 You can see that they work together,[br]they pull at the same moment. 0:03:47.378,0:03:49.891 It's already a big advance[br]over many other animals 0:03:49.915,0:03:51.553 who wouldn't be able to do that. 0:03:51.577,0:03:53.963 Now you're going to get[br]a more interesting picture, 0:03:53.987,0:03:56.613 because now one[br]of the two chimps has been fed. 0:03:56.637,0:04:00.063 So one of the two is not really interested[br]in the task anymore. 0:04:01.908,0:04:04.908 (Laughter) 0:04:08.763,0:04:13.573 (Laughter) 0:04:19.794,0:04:22.730 (Laughter) 0:04:23.380,0:04:28.082 [- and sometimes appears to convey[br]its wishes and meanings by gestures.] 0:04:35.760,0:04:38.170 Now look at what happens[br]at the very end of this. 0:04:41.380,0:04:43.924 (Laughter) 0:04:52.507,0:04:54.396 He takes basically everything. 0:04:54.420,0:04:57.396 (Laughter) 0:04:57.420,0:04:59.436 There are two interesting[br]parts about this. 0:04:59.460,0:05:01.102 One is that the chimp on the right 0:05:01.126,0:05:03.418 has a full understanding[br]he needs the partner -- 0:05:03.442,0:05:05.877 so a full understanding[br]of the need for cooperation. 0:05:05.901,0:05:08.390 The second one is that the partner[br]is willing to work 0:05:08.414,0:05:10.536 even though he's not[br]interested in the food. 0:05:10.560,0:05:11.763 Why would that be? 0:05:11.787,0:05:13.978 Well, that probably[br]has to do with reciprocity. 0:05:14.002,0:05:17.006 There's actually a lot of evidence[br]in primates and other animals 0:05:17.030,0:05:18.552 that they return favors. 0:05:18.576,0:05:21.264 He will get a return favor[br]at some point in the future. 0:05:21.288,0:05:23.163 And so that's how this all operates. 0:05:24.246,0:05:25.935 We do the same task with elephants. 0:05:25.959,0:05:29.113 Now, it's very dangerous[br]to work with elephants. 0:05:29.137,0:05:32.294 Another problem with elephants[br]is that you cannot make an apparatus 0:05:32.318,0:05:34.235 that is too heavy for a single elephant. 0:05:34.259,0:05:35.976 Now you can probably make it, 0:05:36.000,0:05:38.761 but it's going to be a pretty[br]clumsy apparatus, I think. 0:05:38.785,0:05:40.427 And so what we did in that case -- 0:05:40.451,0:05:43.113 we do these studies in Thailand[br]for Josh Plotnik -- 0:05:43.137,0:05:47.070 is we have an apparatus around which[br]there is a rope, a single rope. 0:05:47.094,0:05:50.857 And if you pull on this side of the rope,[br]the rope disappears on the other side. 0:05:50.881,0:05:54.268 So two elephants need to pick it up[br]at exactly the same time, and pull. 0:05:54.292,0:05:57.339 Otherwise nothing is going to happen[br]and the rope disappears. 0:05:57.363,0:05:59.571 The first tape you're going to see 0:05:59.595,0:06:03.584 is two elephants who are released together[br]arrive at the apparatus. 0:06:03.608,0:06:06.408 The apparatus is on the left,[br]with food on it. 0:06:06.836,0:06:09.858 And so they come together,[br]they arrive together, 0:06:09.882,0:06:12.175 they pick it up together,[br]and they pull together. 0:06:12.199,0:06:14.515 So it's actually fairly simple for them. 0:06:16.285,0:06:17.435 There they are. 0:06:25.206,0:06:26.764 So that's how they bring it in. 0:06:26.788,0:06:28.945 But now we're going to make it[br]more difficult. 0:06:28.969,0:06:30.789 Because the purpose of this experiment 0:06:30.813,0:06:33.005 is to see how well[br]they understand cooperation. 0:06:33.029,0:06:35.867 Do they understand that as well[br]as the chimps, for example? 0:06:35.891,0:06:39.369 What we do in the next step is we release[br]one elephant before the other 0:06:39.393,0:06:41.404 and that elephant needs to be smart enough 0:06:41.428,0:06:43.900 to stay there and wait[br]and not pull at the rope -- 0:06:43.924,0:06:47.405 because if he pulls at the rope,[br]it disappears and the whole test is over. 0:06:47.429,0:06:50.699 Now this elephant does something illegal[br]that we did not teach it. 0:06:50.723,0:06:52.889 But it shows the understanding he has, 0:06:52.913,0:06:55.437 because he puts his big foot on the rope, 0:06:55.461,0:06:57.779 stands on the rope[br]and waits there for the other, 0:06:57.803,0:07:00.386 and then the other is going[br]to do all the work for him. 0:07:00.410,0:07:02.976 So it's what we call freeloading. 0:07:03.000,0:07:06.015 (Laughter) 0:07:06.039,0:07:08.855 But it shows the intelligence[br]that the elephants have. 0:07:08.879,0:07:11.452 They developed several[br]of these alternative techniques 0:07:11.476,0:07:13.434 that we did not approve of, necessarily. 0:07:13.458,0:07:14.681 (Laughter) 0:07:14.705,0:07:16.688 So the other elephant is now coming ... 0:07:19.746,0:07:21.205 and is going to pull it in. 0:07:39.338,0:07:42.456 Now look at the other;[br]it doesn't forget to eat, of course. 0:07:42.480,0:07:44.742 (Laughter) 0:07:45.677,0:07:47.894 This was the cooperation[br]and reciprocity part. 0:07:47.918,0:07:49.137 Now something on empathy. 0:07:49.161,0:07:51.665 Empathy is my main topic[br]at the moment, of research. 0:07:51.689,0:07:53.137 And empathy has two qualities: 0:07:53.161,0:07:55.180 One is the understanding part of it. 0:07:55.204,0:07:56.835 This is just a regular definition: 0:07:56.859,0:07:59.671 the ability to understand and share[br]the feelings of another. 0:07:59.695,0:08:00.904 And the emotional part. 0:08:00.928,0:08:04.339 Empathy has basically two channels:[br]One is the body channel, 0:08:04.363,0:08:06.221 If you talk with a sad person, 0:08:06.245,0:08:09.498 you're going to adopt[br]a sad expression and a sad posture, 0:08:09.522,0:08:11.284 and before you know it, you feel sad. 0:08:11.308,0:08:15.526 And that's sort of the body channel[br]of emotional empathy, 0:08:15.550,0:08:16.829 which many animals have. 0:08:16.853,0:08:18.408 Your average dog has that also. 0:08:18.432,0:08:20.432 That's why people keep mammals in the home 0:08:20.456,0:08:22.763 and not turtles or snakes[br]or something like that, 0:08:22.787,0:08:24.576 who don't have that kind of empathy. 0:08:24.600,0:08:26.372 And then there's a cognitive channel, 0:08:26.396,0:08:29.460 which is more that you can take[br]the perspective of somebody else. 0:08:29.484,0:08:30.642 And that's more limited. 0:08:30.666,0:08:34.912 Very few animals, I think elephants[br]and apes, can do that kind of thing. 0:08:36.511,0:08:37.873 So synchronization, 0:08:37.897,0:08:40.040 which is part of that whole[br]empathy mechanism, 0:08:40.064,0:08:42.319 is a very old one in the animal kingdom. 0:08:42.343,0:08:45.584 In humans, of course,[br]we can study that with yawn contagion. 0:08:45.608,0:08:47.426 Humans yawn when others yawn. 0:08:47.450,0:08:49.233 And it's related to empathy. 0:08:49.257,0:08:51.392 It activates the same areas in the brain. 0:08:51.416,0:08:54.137 Also, we know that people[br]who have a lot of yawn contagion 0:08:54.161,0:08:55.314 are highly empathic. 0:08:55.338,0:08:58.513 People who have problems with empathy,[br]such as autistic children, 0:08:58.537,0:09:00.029 they don't have yawn contagion. 0:09:00.053,0:09:01.208 So it is connected. 0:09:01.232,0:09:04.955 And we study that in our chimpanzees[br]by presenting them with an animated head. 0:09:04.979,0:09:08.970 So that's what you see on the upper-left,[br]an animated head that yawns. 0:09:08.994,0:09:10.614 And there's a chimpanzee watching, 0:09:10.638,0:09:13.080 an actual real chimpanzee[br]watching a computer screen 0:09:13.104,0:09:15.052 on which we play these animations. 0:09:21.331,0:09:23.012 (Laughter) 0:09:23.036,0:09:25.975 So yawn contagion[br]that you're probably all familiar with -- 0:09:26.436,0:09:29.115 and maybe you're going[br]to start yawning soon now -- 0:09:29.139,0:09:32.355 is something that we share[br]with other animals. 0:09:32.379,0:09:35.380 And that's related to that whole[br]body channel of synchronization 0:09:35.404,0:09:37.124 that underlies empathy, 0:09:37.148,0:09:40.251 and that is universal[br]in the mammals, basically. 0:09:40.275,0:09:43.386 We also study more complex expressions --[br]This is consolation. 0:09:43.410,0:09:46.510 This is a male chimpanzee[br]who has lost a fight and he's screaming, 0:09:46.534,0:09:49.245 and a juvenile comes over[br]and puts an arm around him 0:09:49.269,0:09:50.434 and calms him down. 0:09:50.458,0:09:51.632 That's consolation. 0:09:51.656,0:09:53.520 It's very similar to human consolation. 0:09:53.544,0:09:55.703 And consolation behavior -- 0:09:55.727,0:09:56.877 (Laughter) 0:09:56.901,0:09:58.586 it's empathy driven. 0:09:58.610,0:10:01.427 Actually, the way to study[br]empathy in human children 0:10:01.451,0:10:04.025 is to instruct a family member[br]to act distressed, 0:10:04.049,0:10:06.012 and then to see what young children do. 0:10:06.036,0:10:08.050 And so it is related to empathy, 0:10:08.074,0:10:10.307 and that's the kind[br]of expressions we look at. 0:10:10.331,0:10:13.429 We also recently published an experiment[br]you may have heard about. 0:10:13.453,0:10:15.436 It's on altruism and chimpanzees, 0:10:15.460,0:10:19.876 where the question is: Do chimpanzees care[br]about the welfare of somebody else? 0:10:19.900,0:10:24.351 And for decades it had been assumed[br]that only humans can do that, 0:10:24.375,0:10:27.634 that only humans worry[br]about the welfare of somebody else. 0:10:27.658,0:10:30.095 Now we did a very simple experiment. 0:10:30.119,0:10:32.746 We do that on chimpanzees[br]that live in Lawrenceville, 0:10:32.770,0:10:34.512 in the field station of Yerkes. 0:10:34.536,0:10:35.873 And so that's how they live. 0:10:35.897,0:10:39.107 And we call them into a room[br]and do experiments with them. 0:10:39.131,0:10:41.468 In this case, we put[br]two chimpanzees side-by-side, 0:10:41.492,0:10:45.069 and one has a bucket full of tokens,[br]and the tokens have different meanings. 0:10:45.093,0:10:47.666 One kind of token feeds[br]only the partner who chooses, 0:10:47.690,0:10:49.515 the other one feeds both of them. 0:10:49.539,0:10:51.884 So this is a study we did[br]with Vicki Horner. 0:10:53.556,0:10:55.825 And here, you have the two color tokens. 0:10:55.849,0:10:57.808 So they have a whole bucket full of them. 0:10:57.832,0:11:00.605 And they have to pick[br]one of the two colors. 0:11:01.153,0:11:02.613 You will see how that goes. 0:11:03.841,0:11:06.269 So if this chimp makes the selfish choice, 0:11:07.173,0:11:09.834 which is the red token in this case, 0:11:09.858,0:11:11.488 he needs to give it to us, 0:11:11.512,0:11:14.849 we pick it up, we put it on a table[br]where there's two food rewards, 0:11:14.873,0:11:17.408 but in this case, only the one[br]on the right gets food. 0:11:17.432,0:11:20.213 The one on the left walks away[br]because she knows already 0:11:20.237,0:11:22.307 that this is not a good test for her. 0:11:22.331,0:11:25.016 Then the next one is the pro-social token. 0:11:25.040,0:11:28.384 So the one who makes the choices --[br]that's the interesting part here -- 0:11:28.408,0:11:31.228 for the one who makes the choices,[br]it doesn't really matter. 0:11:31.252,0:11:34.225 So she gives us now a pro-social[br]token and both chimps get fed. 0:11:34.249,0:11:36.976 So the one who makes the choices[br]always gets a reward. 0:11:37.000,0:11:38.578 So it doesn't matter whatsoever. 0:11:38.602,0:11:41.096 And she should actually[br]be choosing blindly. 0:11:41.922,0:11:45.281 But what we find is that they prefer[br]the pro-social token. 0:11:45.305,0:11:48.299 So this is the 50 percent line,[br]that's the random expectation. 0:11:48.323,0:11:52.272 And especially if the partner draws[br]attention to itself, they choose more. 0:11:52.296,0:11:54.304 And if the partner[br]puts pressure on them -- 0:11:54.328,0:11:57.467 so if the partner starts spitting water[br]and intimidating them -- 0:11:57.491,0:11:59.019 then the choices go down. 0:11:59.043,0:12:00.082 (Laughter) 0:12:00.106,0:12:01.976 It's as if they're saying, 0:12:02.000,0:12:04.987 "If you're not behaving,[br]I'm not going to be pro-social today." 0:12:05.011,0:12:07.015 And this is what happens[br]without a partner, 0:12:07.039,0:12:08.853 when there's no partner sitting there. 0:12:08.877,0:12:12.696 So we found that the chimpanzees do care[br]about the well-being of somebody else -- 0:12:12.720,0:12:15.543 especially, these are other members[br]of their own group. 0:12:16.175,0:12:18.944 So the final experiment[br]that I want to mention to you 0:12:18.968,0:12:20.615 is our fairness study. 0:12:20.639,0:12:23.529 And so this became a very famous study. 0:12:23.553,0:12:24.976 And there are now many more, 0:12:25.000,0:12:27.143 because after we did this[br]about 10 years ago, 0:12:27.167,0:12:28.976 it became very well-known. 0:12:29.524,0:12:31.817 And we did that originally[br]with capuchin monkeys. 0:12:31.841,0:12:34.631 And I'm going to show you[br]the first experiment that we did. 0:12:34.655,0:12:37.467 It has now been done[br]with dogs and with birds 0:12:37.491,0:12:38.976 and with chimpanzees. 0:12:39.545,0:12:42.976 But with Sarah Brosnan,[br]we started out with capuchin monkeys. 0:12:44.318,0:12:47.523 So what we did is we put[br]two capuchin monkeys side-by-side. 0:12:47.547,0:12:50.376 Again, these animals, live in a group,[br]they know each other. 0:12:50.400,0:12:53.154 We take them out of the group,[br]put them in a test chamber. 0:12:53.795,0:12:56.341 And there's a very simple task[br]that they need to do. 0:12:56.365,0:12:59.745 And if you give both of them[br]cucumber for the task, 0:12:59.769,0:13:01.199 the two monkeys side-by-side, 0:13:01.223,0:13:04.053 they're perfectly willing[br]to do this 25 times in a row. 0:13:04.077,0:13:07.524 So cucumber, even though[br]it's only really water in my opinion, 0:13:07.548,0:13:10.786 but cucumber is perfectly fine for them. 0:13:10.810,0:13:13.093 Now if you give the partner grapes -- 0:13:13.117,0:13:15.264 the food preferences[br]of my capuchin monkeys 0:13:15.288,0:13:18.328 correspond exactly with the prices[br]in the supermarket -- 0:13:18.352,0:13:21.757 and so if you give them grapes --[br]it's a far better food -- 0:13:21.781,0:13:23.984 then you create inequity between them. 0:13:24.702,0:13:26.548 So that's the experiment we did. 0:13:26.572,0:13:28.653 Recently, we videotaped it[br]with new monkeys 0:13:28.677,0:13:30.014 who'd never done the task, 0:13:30.038,0:13:32.670 thinking that maybe they would have[br]a stronger reaction, 0:13:32.694,0:13:34.233 and that turned out to be right. 0:13:34.257,0:13:36.753 The one on the left is the monkey[br]who gets cucumber. 0:13:36.777,0:13:39.036 The one on the right[br]is the one who gets grapes. 0:13:39.060,0:13:40.407 The one who gets cucumber -- 0:13:40.431,0:13:43.141 note that the first piece[br]of cucumber is perfectly fine. 0:13:43.251,0:13:44.976 The first piece she eats. 0:13:45.000,0:13:48.605 Then she sees the other one getting grape,[br]and you will see what happens. 0:13:49.294,0:13:51.873 So she gives a rock to us.[br]That's the task. 0:13:51.897,0:13:54.955 And we give her a piece[br]of cucumber and she eats it. 0:13:54.979,0:13:56.976 The other one needs to give a rock to us. 0:13:58.188,0:13:59.976 And that's what she does. 0:14:00.587,0:14:02.199 And she gets a grape ... 0:14:03.579,0:14:04.742 and eats it. 0:14:04.766,0:14:05.961 The other one sees that. 0:14:05.985,0:14:07.301 She gives a rock to us now, 0:14:07.325,0:14:08.897 gets, again, cucumber. 0:14:12.360,0:14:19.360 (Laughter) 0:14:25.741,0:14:27.742 (Laughter ends) 0:14:27.766,0:14:30.741 She tests a rock now against the wall. 0:14:30.765,0:14:32.121 She needs to give it to us. 0:14:32.984,0:14:35.000 And she gets cucumber again. 0:14:37.343,0:14:43.799 (Laughter) 0:14:44.451,0:14:47.580 So this is basically[br]the Wall Street protest that you see here. 0:14:47.604,0:14:49.976 (Laughter) 0:14:50.000,0:14:54.253 (Applause) 0:14:54.277,0:14:56.063 I still have two minutes left -- 0:14:56.087,0:14:58.050 let me tell you a funny story about this. 0:14:58.261,0:15:01.871 This study became very famous[br]and we got a lot of comments, 0:15:01.895,0:15:05.501 especially anthropologists,[br]economists, philosophers. 0:15:05.525,0:15:06.933 They didn't like this at all. 0:15:06.957,0:15:09.519 Because they had decided[br]in their minds, I believe, 0:15:09.543,0:15:13.609 that fairness is a very complex issue,[br]and that animals cannot have it. 0:15:14.212,0:15:16.675 And so one philosopher even wrote us 0:15:16.699,0:15:19.473 that it was impossible that monkeys[br]had a sense of fairness 0:15:19.497,0:15:22.278 because fairness was invented[br]during the French Revolution. 0:15:22.302,0:15:24.719 (Laughter) 0:15:24.743,0:15:27.425 And another one wrote a whole chapter 0:15:27.449,0:15:30.976 saying that he would believe[br]it had something to do with fairness, 0:15:31.000,0:15:33.397 if the one who got grapes[br]would refuse the grapes. 0:15:33.421,0:15:37.293 Now the funny thing is that Sarah Brosnan,[br]who's been doing this with chimpanzees, 0:15:37.317,0:15:39.463 had a couple of combinations[br]of chimpanzees 0:15:39.487,0:15:41.843 where, indeed, the one[br]who would get the grape 0:15:41.867,0:15:44.773 would refuse the grape[br]until the other guy also got a grape. 0:15:44.797,0:15:47.564 So we're getting very close[br]to the human sense of fairness. 0:15:47.588,0:15:51.024 And I think philosophers need[br]to rethink their philosophy for a while. 0:15:51.658,0:15:52.976 So let me summarize. 0:15:53.592,0:15:55.404 I believe there's an evolved morality. 0:15:55.428,0:15:58.647 I think morality is much more[br]than what I've been talking about, 0:15:58.671,0:16:01.122 but it would be impossible[br]without these ingredients 0:16:01.146,0:16:02.644 that we find in other primates, 0:16:02.668,0:16:04.505 which are empathy and consolation, 0:16:04.529,0:16:08.235 pro-social tendencies and reciprocity[br]and a sense of fairness. 0:16:08.259,0:16:10.316 And so we work on these particular issues 0:16:10.340,0:16:13.685 to see if we can create a morality[br]from the bottom up, so to speak, 0:16:13.709,0:16:16.142 without necessarily[br]god and religion involved, 0:16:16.166,0:16:18.632 and to see how we can get[br]to an evolved morality. 0:16:19.066,0:16:20.806 And I thank you for your attention. 0:16:20.830,0:16:27.830 (Applause)