Insulin pumps improve the lives

of many of the 415 million people 
with diabetes around the world

by monitoring blood sugar, delivering 
insulin,

and preventing the need for constant 
finger-pricking and blood testing.

These small machines include a pump and
a needle, which can sense glucose levels,

feed back to the pump,

and then calculate how much insulin 
to deliver through the needle.

But they have a catch: they’re temporary.

Within a few days, glucose sensors have to
be moved and replaced.

And it’s not just glucose monitors and 
insulin pumps that have this problem,

but all bodily implants, 
at different time scales.

Plastic prosthetic knees have to be 
replaced after about 20 years.

Other implants, such as those used for 
cosmetic reasons,

can meet the same fate in about 10.

That isn’t just a nuisance: it 
can be expensive and risky.

This inconvenience happens because of 
our bodies’ immune systems.

Honed by several hundred million 
years of evolution,

these defensive fronts

have become exceptionally good 
at identifying foreign objects.

Our immune systems boast

an impressive arsenal of tools to tackle,
intercept, and destroy

anything they believe shouldn’t be there.

But the consequence of this constant 
surveillance

is that our bodies treat helpful 
implants, like insulin pumps,

with the same suspicion as they would
a harmful virus or bacteria.

As soon as the insulin pump has been 
implanted in the skin,

its presence triggers what’s known as a
“foreign body response.”

This starts with free-floating proteins

that stick themselves to the surface 
of the implant.

Those proteins include antibodies,

which attempt to neutralize the new object

and send out a signal that calls other 
immune cells to the site

to strengthen the attack.

Early-responding inflammatory cells,

like neutrophils and macrophages,

respond to the emergency call.

Neutrophils release little granules filled
with enzymes

that try to break down the surface 
of the insulin pump’s needle.

Macrophages secrete enzymes too,

together with nitric oxide radicals,

which create a chemical reaction that 
degrades the object over time.

If the macrophages are unable to dispatch 
the foreign body rapidly,

they fuse together, forming a mass of 
cells called a “giant cell.”

At the same time, cells called fibroblasts

travel to the site and begin to deposit
layers of dense connective tissue.

Those enclose the needle that the pump 
uses to deliver insulin

and test for glucose levels.

Over time this scaffolding builds up,

forming a scar around the implant.

The scar functions as an almost 
impenetrable wall

that might start to block vital 
interactions

between the body and the implant.

For example, scarring around pacemakers
can interrupt

the electrical transmission that’s 
crucial for their functioning.

Synthetic knee joints may give off 
particles as they’re worn down,

causing immune cells to inflame 
around these fragments.

Tragically, the immune system’s attack
can even be life-threatening.

However, researchers are finding ways 
to trick the immune system

into accepting the new devices we 
introduce into our bodily tissues.

We’ve discovered that coating implants 
with certain chemicals and drugs

can dampen the immune response.

Those basically make the implants 
invisible to the immune system.

We’re also making more implants 
out of natural materials

and in forms that directly mimic tissues,

so that the body launches a weaker attack

than it would if it came across a 
completely artificial implant.

Some medical treatments involve implants

designed to regenerate lost 
or damaged tissues.

In those cases, we can design the implants
to contain ingredients

that will release specific signals,

and carefully tailor our bodies’
immune reactions.

In the future, this way of working
alongside the immune system

could help us develop completely 
artificial organs,

totally integrative prostheses,

and self-healing wound therapies.

These treatments might one day 
revolutionize medicine–

and transform, forever, 
the bodies we live in.