0:00:08.437,0:00:09.687
Good, good!

0:00:09.697,0:00:14.257
So, back in the early 1990s,[br]I was a training commercial pilot

0:00:14.277,0:00:19.733
with hair that probably produced more lift[br]than most of the small aircrafts I flew.

0:00:19.742,0:00:21.122
(Laughter)

0:00:21.142,0:00:24.182
Anyway, one day,[br]my instructor Bob came out,

0:00:24.199,0:00:28.769
and he said, "Ash, today, I'm going[br]to instruct you in instrument flying."

0:00:29.585,0:00:32.945
This was pretty exciting[br]because there are two flavors of flying.

0:00:32.965,0:00:34.925
There's "visual" where you can see

0:00:34.945,0:00:37.635
the horizon ahead of you[br]and what's below you,

0:00:37.645,0:00:40.599
which is kind of for the rookie[br]pilots and weekend pilots.[br]

0:00:40.619,0:00:42.639
Then there's "instrument flying."

0:00:43.019,0:00:45.929
Instrument flying[br]is for the professionals.

0:00:46.059,0:00:48.079
That's being able[br]to punch into the clouds.

0:00:48.089,0:00:50.139
So I was pretty excited about this.

0:00:51.048,0:00:54.738
Anyway, we went out,[br]we did our preflight briefing

0:00:54.758,0:00:58.534
and grabbed a little Cessna 152,

0:00:58.534,0:01:01.234
took off, went out[br]to the southern training area,

0:01:01.254,0:01:03.454
got set up at 5,000 feet.

0:01:04.296,0:01:06.296
And Bob whacked this on me.

0:01:06.336,0:01:08.123
(Laughter)

0:01:09.077,0:01:13.187
This little plastic contraption[br]is known as "the hood,"

0:01:13.217,0:01:17.869
and it constrains the pilot's[br]view to their six instruments.

0:01:19.155,0:01:21.875
Bob said, "Okay, now I want[br]you to fly straight and level

0:01:21.895,0:01:23.575
just by instruments."

0:01:23.778,0:01:26.938
I did that, it was pretty easy.[br]I was pretty good at this stuff.

0:01:26.958,0:01:28.961
(Laughter)

0:01:29.470,0:01:31.450
Then he said, "Okay, you did well Ash.

0:01:31.470,0:01:35.442
I want you to maintain 5,000 feet[br]and perform a standard right turn."

0:01:35.785,0:01:37.465
Now, this was a bit more difficult.

0:01:37.485,0:01:40.876
I had to organize to work[br]the pedals and the controls.

0:01:40.895,0:01:43.435
At the same time, I was[br]scanning all these instruments

0:01:43.445,0:01:49.031
without the wealth of information[br]from the visual sphere outside.

0:01:49.927,0:01:53.417
But I got it. It was pretty good.[br]I was feeling pretty cocky.

0:01:53.725,0:01:55.675
And he said, "Okay, done well.

0:01:55.695,0:01:57.935
Roll out of that[br]into straight and level again."

0:01:57.945,0:02:00.575
So I rolled out into straight and level.

0:02:01.219,0:02:05.819
But my artificial horizon[br]wasn't quite right.

0:02:06.085,0:02:07.735
It was a bit off.

0:02:08.009,0:02:10.169
So I looked over[br]at my turn and slip indicator

0:02:10.189,0:02:12.949
and the ball was out of it,[br]so I kicked in a bit of rudder.

0:02:12.969,0:02:14.849
My directional gyro started moving.

0:02:15.079,0:02:19.434
I was flying straight and level,[br]but my instruments were failing.

0:02:19.454,0:02:21.439
The altimeter started rising.

0:02:21.449,0:02:23.668
Directional gyro was spinning faster.

0:02:23.673,0:02:27.033
The artificial horizon[br]just slipped right off,

0:02:27.049,0:02:30.859
the whole dial,[br]and Bob whipped my hood off.

0:02:32.433,0:02:37.053
I'd entered what is known[br]as "the graveyard spiral."

0:02:38.452,0:02:40.550
Now in a recent study,

0:02:40.550,0:02:44.320
the average pilot[br]with no instrument flight training,

0:02:44.926,0:02:48.776
punching into clouds[br]lasts a mere 178 seconds.

0:02:49.486,0:02:52.506
That's two seconds shy of three minutes[br]

0:02:52.526,0:02:55.102
before spiraling to their death.

0:02:56.787,0:03:01.037
Fair enough, my vestibular[br]senses had tricked me.

0:03:01.178,0:03:04.598
The sense that tells me[br]which way is up, had tricked me,

0:03:04.608,0:03:06.778
and Bob got me good with it.[br]

0:03:06.798,0:03:08.607
Bob taught me a good lesson.

0:03:08.617,0:03:11.217
Next time I'll know:[br]trust the instruments.

0:03:11.608,0:03:14.288
So we went up for the next lesson,

0:03:14.307,0:03:15.617
and I failed,

0:03:15.641,0:03:19.011
and the next lesson, and the next lesson.

0:03:20.405,0:03:22.145
This was frustrating me.

0:03:22.172,0:03:25.092
I considered myself[br]a good, confident pilot.

0:03:25.579,0:03:28.559
Yet I couldn't accept[br]the evidence in front of me.

0:03:29.261,0:03:31.242
My intuition took over every time.

0:03:31.252,0:03:34.492
My brain kept on making up these excuses:

0:03:34.492,0:03:38.042
"Oh, this aircraft has[br]a dodgy vacuum pump."

0:03:38.072,0:03:42.042
"The static intakes[br]on these little tomahawks

0:03:42.042,0:03:44.612
always blocks up,[br]the instruments are failing."

0:03:44.783,0:03:50.023
I knew the instruments weren't failing,[br]but I couldn't seem to accept it.

0:03:51.839,0:03:55.739
It's amazing where we're[br]often taught or told

0:03:55.749,0:03:58.649
how wonderful and powerful[br]

0:03:58.659,0:04:02.599
the hundred billion or so neurons[br]that make up our mind are.

0:04:02.915,0:04:07.685
Yet, we rarely discuss the cognitive[br]shortcomings that we have.

0:04:08.040,0:04:11.370
I mean, at school I was[br]taught how the mind works.

0:04:11.632,0:04:15.422
It's very much like[br]a modern laptop computer.

0:04:16.133,0:04:18.613
You have your high definition video camera

0:04:18.623,0:04:21.843
and your mic that takes[br]in everything around you.[br]

0:04:22.041,0:04:26.781
You've got everything then[br]stored to memory, bit for bit,

0:04:26.791,0:04:30.820
perfectly written to data[br]on your hard drive.

0:04:31.080,0:04:35.522
And our brains process things[br]in a very logical fashion,

0:04:35.532,0:04:39.552
like we should all have Intel Inside[br]stickers on our foreheads.

0:04:41.159,0:04:43.629
This is the metaphor that's used,

0:04:43.641,0:04:45.561
but it's not a very good metaphor.

0:04:45.586,0:04:48.406
In fact, it's completely wrong.

0:04:49.436,0:04:54.476
You see, our senses aren't like[br]high-def recording equipment.

0:04:54.930,0:04:57.800
We only take in snippets[br]of the information,

0:04:57.820,0:05:00.770
and our mind fills in the gaps for us.

0:05:01.354,0:05:03.854
As a pilot we're taught[br]a whole lot of tips and tricks

0:05:03.874,0:05:06.584
to get around human limitations.

0:05:06.787,0:05:11.017
Things like when we want [br]to find an aircraft in the sky,

0:05:12.184,0:05:14.104
we've got to break it up into quadrants.

0:05:14.124,0:05:18.354
You see, our eyes only see[br]this much clearly at any one time.

0:05:18.394,0:05:21.254
It's hard to grasp,[br]but this is what we see.

0:05:21.978,0:05:24.928
Our eyes dart around[br]at a thousand degrees a second,

0:05:24.938,0:05:26.991
that what's called "a saccade."

0:05:27.331,0:05:30.981
Our mind fills in the rest of the picture[br]with what it expects to see there.

0:05:31.031,0:05:35.091
So if you're looking up at the sky,[br]it expects to see a lot of blue.

0:05:35.604,0:05:38.384
You have to actually break[br]up the sky into quadrants[br]

0:05:38.394,0:05:43.368
and saccade across[br]until the aircraft lands

0:05:43.378,0:05:47.671
within the focus of those saccades,[br]before you'll see the aircraft.

0:05:48.597,0:05:50.777
And it's not just our visual[br]senses that work like this.

0:05:50.797,0:05:53.317
All of our senses work like this.[br]

0:05:53.894,0:05:57.744
Our mind just fills in the gaps for us[br]without us being aware of it.

0:05:58.326,0:06:00.866
That's why illusions work.

0:06:01.377,0:06:07.427
That's why Simon takes great delight[br]in knowing how your perception works

0:06:07.438,0:06:11.118
and being able to fool you,[br]being able to manipulate that.[br]

0:06:12.308,0:06:15.988
And up here, it doesn't[br]take in everything.[br]

0:06:16.003,0:06:18.753
It doesn't store everything to memory.

0:06:19.442,0:06:24.502
It takes snippets,[br]little grabs of feelings,

0:06:24.524,0:06:28.284
of sights, sounds,[br]tastes, smells, emotions.

0:06:29.247,0:06:32.517
And then it pieces them together[br]when you recall a memory.[br]

0:06:32.924,0:06:37.354
When it pieces them together,[br]it makes up the bits in between again.

0:06:37.877,0:06:39.697
It creates a movie,

0:06:40.115,0:06:43.465
only the movie is based on a true story.

0:06:44.397,0:06:48.677
The next time you recall that same event,[br]you're recalling it from that memory,

0:06:48.693,0:06:51.853
taking snippets of that memory[br]and piecing it together again.

0:06:52.309,0:06:56.579
So next time, it's actually[br]more like a screenplay

0:06:56.595,0:06:59.865
based on a book based on a true story.

0:07:00.639,0:07:03.349
Each time you remember[br]something, it changes a bit more.

0:07:03.519,0:07:05.789
It takes one more step away from reality,

0:07:05.799,0:07:09.669
even if it feels like you[br]remember it clear as day.

0:07:11.396,0:07:15.086
And our cognitions, the way[br]we think, they're adapted.

0:07:15.096,0:07:20.796
We evolved to be really good[br]at surviving in small social groups,

0:07:21.610,0:07:24.210
for being able to match patterns,

0:07:24.220,0:07:28.677
for being able to keep track[br]of social relationships -

0:07:28.951,0:07:30.961
not very good at logic though.

0:07:32.854,0:07:35.196
That horrible feeling I experienced

0:07:35.206,0:07:40.671
when I couldn't get my instinct

0:07:40.681,0:07:42.891
to match up with[br]the evidence in front of me,

0:07:42.901,0:07:45.391
that's known as "cognitive dissonance."

0:07:45.773,0:07:47.809
Now cognitive dissonance

0:07:47.819,0:07:52.099
is when your mind tries to hold[br]two conflicting ideas simultaneously.

0:07:52.606,0:07:55.066
It gives you a horrible feeling.

0:07:55.294,0:07:58.464
It'll be a negative feeling,[br]it'll be feeling sick.

0:07:58.601,0:08:02.261
It'll be feeling anxious or even angry.[br]

0:08:03.955,0:08:06.285
Cognitive dissonance is the mechanism

0:08:06.307,0:08:11.057
by which we start being[br]able to, I don't know,

0:08:11.066,0:08:15.326
account for irrational[br]behaviors like smoking.[br]

0:08:15.336,0:08:19.457
I've got a friend Janine,[br]very warm, intelligent lady.

0:08:20.298,0:08:24.778
She's very smart. She works[br]as an intensive care nurse.

0:08:25.508,0:08:28.978
Everyday, she's looking after people[br]with throat cancer and lung cancer

0:08:28.988,0:08:31.318
who are dying from smoking.

0:08:31.331,0:08:35.691
She knows the damage[br]that it causes, yet she smokes.

0:08:36.200,0:08:38.287
I asked her why,[br]she sat me down and said,

0:08:38.297,0:08:42.577
"Ash, I need to explain[br]this to you: I'm a nurse.

0:08:42.587,0:08:45.047
I work long irregular hours.

0:08:45.709,0:08:49.349
I don't get to exercise.[br]I don't get to eat well.

0:08:50.200,0:08:53.190
Smoking helps me keep down my weight!

0:08:53.200,0:08:54.980
(Laughter)

0:08:56.071,0:09:00.031
You think there are problems with people[br]who have smoked for a long time,

0:09:00.041,0:09:03.071
you should see the long-term[br]problems of obesity."

0:09:03.430,0:09:07.300
So just like that, she'd rationalized away

0:09:07.320,0:09:10.650
her behavior with her knowledge.

0:09:12.579,0:09:15.989
Cognitive dissonance[br]does this in a number of ways.

0:09:16.653,0:09:20.853
Also, it's a great protector[br]of our self-concept.

0:09:20.923,0:09:23.081
What we think of as

0:09:23.101,0:09:27.651
"I'm a good, moral, intelligent[br]person," that self-concept,

0:09:27.691,0:09:29.791
it protects it for us.

0:09:32.300,0:09:37.940
This guy will never admit[br]that he was wrong about invading Iraq,

0:09:38.685,0:09:40.845
not because he's evil,

0:09:41.165,0:09:46.075
but it's because he really thinks[br]he wasn't wrong about invading Iraq.

0:09:50.095,0:09:53.525
He thinks of himself[br]as a good moral Christian.

0:09:53.911,0:09:55.621
He was president of the United States.

0:09:55.631,0:09:59.331
He was leader of the free world.[br]He was the good guys.

0:10:01.367,0:10:05.697
Unfortunately, he also[br]set up the perfect context

0:10:07.361,0:10:09.011
for making bad decisions.

0:10:09.034,0:10:11.294
You see, George Bush[br]was well-known

0:10:11.314,0:10:16.004
to fire or demote anyone[br]who disagreed with his opinions.

0:10:16.467,0:10:20.407
So he cocooned himself,[br]surrounded himself with yes-men.

0:10:20.417,0:10:23.064
He protected himself[br]from cognitive dissonance.

0:10:23.074,0:10:28.554
So when he decided that there must[br]be weapons of mass destruction in Iraq,

0:10:28.579,0:10:32.039
all his cronies went out[br]and scoured the intelligence reports,

0:10:32.059,0:10:34.659
picking up the most tenuous[br]little bits of information

0:10:34.669,0:10:38.029
and stringing them together[br]to feed his belief

0:10:38.049,0:10:40.609
that there were weapons[br]of mass destruction.

0:10:42.558,0:10:45.158
That's what is known[br]as "confirmation bias,"

0:10:45.859,0:10:48.289
seeking confirming[br]evidence of our beliefs

0:10:48.309,0:10:54.169
and disregarding or minimizing[br]the impact of disconfirming evidence.

0:10:54.640,0:10:56.750
That's just one of the mechanisms.

0:10:56.770,0:10:59.340
It's one of the most common[br]mechanisms that our brain uses

0:10:59.370,0:11:02.316
to protect us from cognitive dissonance.

0:11:03.257,0:11:08.327
But it's just one of many,[br]many biases that we have.

0:11:08.347,0:11:12.157
In fact, you may be[br]experiencing one right now.

0:11:16.218,0:11:19.668
Now these biases build up.

0:11:20.916,0:11:22.566
(Laughter)

0:11:22.590,0:11:24.880
That's why you're meant to be seeing.

0:11:25.020,0:11:30.340
These biases build up and attack[br]our ability to reason logically.

0:11:31.001,0:11:32.981
And people take advantage of this.[br]

0:11:32.993,0:11:36.445
Whole industries,[br]billion-dollar industries,

0:11:36.465,0:11:39.725
are wrapped around our faulty reasoning.

0:11:40.277,0:11:42.557
Things like cosmetics,

0:11:42.799,0:11:45.299
anti-aging creams.

0:11:45.720,0:11:47.280
You're right!

0:11:49.004,0:11:53.089
Vitamins and supplements,[br]well, you urinate them all out.

0:11:53.109,0:11:54.799
They don't boost your immune system.[br]

0:11:54.819,0:11:59.597
If they did boost your immune system,[br]you'd have an autoimmune disease.

0:12:02.306,0:12:06.726
Alternative health practices,[br]aligning your energies,

0:12:06.746,0:12:08.254
we got rid of that concept

0:12:08.264,0:12:11.244
when we discovered[br]the central nervous system.

0:12:12.696,0:12:14.996
Just the other day,[br]I was on a train in Melbourne

0:12:15.016,0:12:18.765
and I spotted a young guy in a suit.

0:12:19.125,0:12:23.545
He was wearing one of these,[br]it's a power band bracelet.

0:12:28.322,0:12:32.940
The makers of Power Balance claim

0:12:32.950,0:12:37.040
that this piece of silicon[br]with a sticker on it

0:12:37.050,0:12:39.400
will make you stronger and more flexible.

0:12:39.420,0:12:43.280
Now on face value,[br]that is laughable, it's silly,

0:12:43.303,0:12:47.263
but he probably didn't come to this belief[br]from a claim like this.

0:12:47.433,0:12:51.943
He probably came to it from seeing[br]one of his sports stars wearing it,

0:12:51.963,0:12:55.583
and then noticing other[br]top athletes wearing it.

0:12:56.517,0:12:58.917
These things have to chip away.

0:12:59.722,0:13:03.062
Now Power Balance is smart[br]enough to give away these

0:13:03.072,0:13:08.322
to every top athlete they can[br]and sponsor key top athletes to wear them.

0:13:09.516,0:13:11.426
So he's had this.

0:13:11.998,0:13:15.378
He has formed an idea,[br]and he goes and searches online.

0:13:16.172,0:13:19.992
Power Balance has littered[br]YouTube and blogs

0:13:20.002,0:13:22.702
with testimonials and demonstrations[br]

0:13:22.728,0:13:26.128
much like they have used[br]for years in martial arts

0:13:26.138,0:13:28.838
and in applied kinesiology,

0:13:28.868,0:13:33.768
a simple trick to show[br]that it makes you more balanced.

0:13:36.133,0:13:38.293
So he probably saw this stuff,

0:13:38.313,0:13:41.073
and that was the confirmation bias[br]building up the belief,

0:13:41.083,0:13:44.780
and then he went out[br]and spent 60 hard dollars

0:13:44.800,0:13:48.227
on a rubber band with a sticker on it.

0:13:49.421,0:13:51.701
That cemented his belief even further.

0:13:51.721,0:13:55.071
People then asked him,[br]"Does that work for you?"

0:13:55.202,0:13:56.902
And he would recall a time

0:13:56.920,0:13:59.760
when he performed[br]a bit better than normal,

0:14:00.484,0:14:04.944
and not recall the times[br]when it was average or below average.

0:14:05.889,0:14:07.339
More confirmation bias!

0:14:07.354,0:14:08.901
When more people asked him,[br]

0:14:08.901,0:14:12.461
he would keep recalling those same[br]events of better performance,

0:14:12.475,0:14:18.305
except those events would now[br]get even better, and even better,

0:14:18.325,0:14:20.915
making it legendary performance.

0:14:22.290,0:14:28.420
So his Power Balance bracelet[br]is working, it is good.

0:14:30.018,0:14:31.988
Then someone might[br]come up to him and say,

0:14:31.998,0:14:35.178
"You realize that they actually did[br]some scientific tests.

0:14:35.208,0:14:39.288
Double blind showed[br]that it's just a rubber band."

0:14:41.037,0:14:45.187
"- Science doesn't know everything.[br]Don't be so closed minded.

0:14:45.207,0:14:48.251
You got to try it to understand!"

0:14:48.981,0:14:51.521
These are the types of things[br]people will come up with

0:14:51.531,0:14:54.641
when their mind is painted into a corner.

0:14:56.000,0:14:57.730
And it's not just that.

0:14:57.880,0:15:01.670
When you come up against a hard[br]or an unwinnable argument,

0:15:01.680,0:15:04.810
cognitive dissonance can cause anger.

0:15:05.106,0:15:08.676
If that argument[br]is unwinnable on both sides,

0:15:08.696,0:15:10.696
it escalates to rage.

0:15:11.446,0:15:14.806
It can escalate to ideological wars,

0:15:14.836,0:15:19.656
people fighting to the death[br]trying to prove their point,

0:15:20.705,0:15:25.355
trying to prove that their imagining frame[br]is the real one, not yours.

0:15:27.889,0:15:30.399
It's not all doom and gloom[br]though, there is hope.[br]

0:15:31.241,0:15:33.097
Science is testament to that.

0:15:33.107,0:15:36.707
Now when you say "science," people[br]have the wrong idea a lot of the times.

0:15:36.727,0:15:41.934
Science isn't a person[br]or a thing, an organization.

0:15:42.226,0:15:45.166
Science is simply a process.[br]

0:15:45.886,0:15:51.386
It's a process that was designed[br]specifically to overcome our biases.

0:15:52.644,0:15:54.384
And as well as that process,

0:15:54.404,0:15:58.404
it's also the body of knowledge[br]that results from the process.

0:15:58.597,0:16:01.045
The process is just known[br]as "scientific method."

0:16:01.045,0:16:04.485
It's simply down to making a prediction,

0:16:04.505,0:16:06.575
testing that prediction,

0:16:07.467,0:16:09.547
and then coming up with your conclusions,

0:16:09.547,0:16:13.117
but most importantly being transparent[br]about how you did it all

0:16:13.127,0:16:15.967
so other people[br]can pick apart your arguments,

0:16:15.982,0:16:21.342
other people can test and see[br]if you reasoned correctly.

0:16:22.443,0:16:24.713
It's a very important part of it.

0:16:25.538,0:16:30.688
And enough people, like Temple said,[br]enough people are working on this.

0:16:31.245,0:16:34.925
They spend their whole lifetimes[br]doing small detailed work,

0:16:34.945,0:16:37.605
making tiny little[br]increments in knowledge.

0:16:37.725,0:16:40.985
It's none of these eureka[br]moments that you hear about.

0:16:41.112,0:16:43.852
It's tiny increments but it all goes[br]into a pool of knowledge.

0:16:43.882,0:16:45.512
And because of that pool of knowledge,

0:16:45.522,0:16:50.052
in medicine alone, I've never[br]seen a child with smallpox.

0:16:50.262,0:16:53.832
I've never seen a child[br]afflicted by polio.

0:16:54.377,0:16:59.257
I've never had a loved one[br]die of measles or diptheria.

0:16:59.500,0:17:04.720
These killed millions of people[br]until we figured out vaccines for them.

0:17:04.929,0:17:09.039
And closer to home,[br]this old fellow, my dad.

0:17:09.599,0:17:13.599
I should have lost him,[br]twice in the last 15 years.

0:17:13.902,0:17:18.202
He actually had a tube[br]fed through his groin

0:17:18.222,0:17:22.942
and a balloon pulled through his heart[br]to flatten the fatty deposits in there,

0:17:22.972,0:17:26.392
saving him from having[br]another massive heart attack.[br]

0:17:27.053,0:17:33.053
He also had tuberculosis injected[br]into his bladder a number of times

0:17:33.063,0:17:35.743
to kill the cancer[br]that was growing there.

0:17:35.778,0:17:40.548
just recent advances in science[br]that kept him around with me today.

0:17:41.171,0:17:43.381
And it's not just in the area of health

0:17:43.401,0:17:46.863
that this way of thinking[br]is useful for us.

0:17:46.903,0:17:51.473
Getting rid of these misunderstandings,

0:17:51.483,0:17:55.223
actually knowing about your[br]brain and how it's tricking you,

0:17:55.243,0:17:59.493
compensating for cognitive[br]dissonance and cognitive biases ;

0:17:59.515,0:18:02.455
it's everything, any[br]type of decision making

0:18:02.489,0:18:05.809
from deciding on a consumer product,

0:18:05.829,0:18:09.026
fighting with your partner,[br]to public policy ;

0:18:09.726,0:18:11.901
accounting for all these cognitive biases

0:18:11.911,0:18:15.501
and being open about how[br]you reach your conclusions[br]

0:18:16.211,0:18:19.481
is a useful and powerful thing,[br]and we should start with the schools.

0:18:19.501,0:18:23.221
We should start getting rid of these[br]outdated metaphors for how we think,

0:18:23.247,0:18:26.887
and teach kids how we actually do think.

0:18:27.134,0:18:30.654
If we can do that,[br]they'll appreciate science more.

0:18:33.145,0:18:35.345
Just like when I was a pilot,[br]

0:18:35.355,0:18:38.945
it was hard for me[br]to get over this whole thing.

0:18:39.405,0:18:42.415
There was many white-knuckled,[br]sweat-soaked flights

0:18:42.435,0:18:45.305
for me to be able to get over

0:18:45.315,0:18:49.475
my own internal battle[br]and trust my instruments.

0:18:49.809,0:18:52.279
We can all actually go[br]through this process.

0:18:52.329,0:18:57.159
We can all learn not to start[br]with conclusions and find evidence.

0:18:57.189,0:19:02.389
We can learn to start with evidence,[br]evaluate it, and come to a conclusion.

0:19:03.299,0:19:05.889
We can all learn to use[br]our brains more effectively

0:19:05.909,0:19:09.329
and I think that's[br]an idea worth spreading.

0:19:10.028,0:19:11.308
Thanks.

0:19:11.308,0:19:12.908
(Applause)