[Script Info]
Title: 
[Events]
Format: Layer, Start, End, Style, Name, MarginL, MarginR, MarginV, Effect, Text
Dialogue: 0,0:00:01.46,0:00:05.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I stand before you\Nas an evolutionary biologist,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:05.83,0:00:08.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,a professor of evolutionary biology,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:08.17,0:00:13.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which sounds like a rather fancy title,\Nif I may say so myself.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:13.21,0:00:15.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And I'm going to talk about two topics
Dialogue: 0,0:00:15.71,0:00:17.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that aren't normally\Ntalked about together,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:19.04,0:00:22.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and that's market economies and fungi.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:22.12,0:00:26.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Or is it fun-GUY, or,\Nas we say in Europe now, fun-GEE?
Dialogue: 0,0:00:26.25,0:00:29.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's still no consensus\Non how to say this word.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:30.96,0:00:35.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I want you to imagine a market economy
Dialogue: 0,0:00:36.00,0:00:39.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that's 400 million years old,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:39.67,0:00:45.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,one that's so ubiquitous that it operates\Nin almost every ecosystem of the world,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:45.50,0:00:51.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so huge that it can connect\Nmillions of traders simultaneously,
Dialogue: 0,0:00:51.75,0:00:53.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and so persistent
Dialogue: 0,0:00:53.54,0:00:56.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that it survived mass extinctions.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:56.38,0:00:59.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's here, right now, under our feet.
Dialogue: 0,0:00:59.88,0:01:01.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You just can't see it.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:02.08,0:01:05.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And unlike human economies
Dialogue: 0,0:01:05.17,0:01:08.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that rely on cognition to make decisions,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:08.29,0:01:12.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,traders in this market,\Nthey beg, borrow, steal, cheat,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:12.67,0:01:14.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,all in the absence of thought.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:14.75,0:01:16.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So hidden from our eyes,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:16.54,0:01:20.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,plant roots are colonized by a fungus\Ncalled arbuscule mycorrhizae.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:20.38,0:01:23.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now the fungus forms\Nthese complex networks underground
Dialogue: 0,0:01:23.88,0:01:28.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of fine filaments\Nthinner than even threads of cotton.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:28.12,0:01:30.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So follow one of these fungi,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:30.12,0:01:32.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and it connects multiple\Nplants simultaneously.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:33.79,0:01:37.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can think of it\Nas an underground subway system,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:37.58,0:01:40.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where each root is a station,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:40.08,0:01:43.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where resources are loaded and unloaded.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:43.38,0:01:45.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's also very dense,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:45.46,0:01:50.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so roughly the length\Nof many meters, even a kilometer,
Dialogue: 0,0:01:50.67,0:01:52.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in a single gram of dirt.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:52.25,0:01:57.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So that's the length of 10 football fields
Dialogue: 0,0:01:57.33,0:01:59.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in just a thimbleful of soil.
Dialogue: 0,0:01:59.50,0:02:00.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it's everywhere.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:00.79,0:02:06.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So if you passed over a tree,\Na shrub, a vine, even a tiny weed,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:06.79,0:02:09.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,you passed over a mycorrhizal network.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:09.75,0:02:13.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Roughly 80 percent of all plant species
Dialogue: 0,0:02:13.46,0:02:17.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are associated with these\Nmycorrhizal fungi.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:17.29,0:02:21.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what does a root covered in fungi
Dialogue: 0,0:02:21.17,0:02:23.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,have to do with our global economy?
Dialogue: 0,0:02:23.83,0:02:28.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And why as an evolutionary biologist\Nhave I spent the last 10 years of my life
Dialogue: 0,0:02:28.42,0:02:30.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,learning economic jargon?
Dialogue: 0,0:02:30.79,0:02:33.21,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Well, the first thing\Nyou need to understand
Dialogue: 0,0:02:36.17,0:02:38.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is that trade deals\Nmade by plant and fungal partners
Dialogue: 0,0:02:38.71,0:02:40.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are surprisingly similar
Dialogue: 0,0:02:40.92,0:02:43.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to those made by us,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:43.17,0:02:45.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but perhaps even more strategic.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:45.58,0:02:47.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see, plant and fungal partners,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:47.33,0:02:51.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they're not exchanging stocks and bonds,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:51.75,0:02:54.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they're exchanging essential resources,
Dialogue: 0,0:02:54.21,0:02:57.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and for the fungus,\Nthat's sugars and fats.
Dialogue: 0,0:02:57.25,0:03:01.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It gets all of its carbon\Ndirectly from the plant partner.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:01.83,0:03:07.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So much carbon, so every year,\Nroughly five billion tons of carbon
Dialogue: 0,0:03:07.17,0:03:11.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,from plants go into\Nthis network underground.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:11.71,0:03:16.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,For the root, what they need\Nis phosphorus and nitrogen,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:16.71,0:03:18.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so by exchanging their carbon
Dialogue: 0,0:03:18.54,0:03:23.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they get access to all of the nutrients\Ncollected by that fungal network.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:24.75,0:03:26.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So to make the trade,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:26.71,0:03:31.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the fungus penetrates\Ninto the root cell of the host
Dialogue: 0,0:03:31.46,0:03:35.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and forms a tiny structure\Ncalled an arbuscule,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:35.21,0:03:37.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,which is Latin for "little tree."
Dialogue: 0,0:03:37.88,0:03:42.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, you can think of this\Nas the physical stock exchange
Dialogue: 0,0:03:42.21,0:03:43.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the trade market.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:43.50,0:03:46.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So up until now, it seems very harmonious.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:46.71,0:03:49.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Right? I scratch your back,\Nyou scratch mine,
Dialogue: 0,0:03:49.58,0:03:51.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,both partners get what they need.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:51.75,0:03:54.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But here is where we need to pause
Dialogue: 0,0:03:54.96,0:03:59.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and understand the power\Nof evolution and natural selection.
Dialogue: 0,0:03:59.88,0:04:04.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see, there's no room\Nfor amateur traders on this market.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:04.96,0:04:07.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Making the right trade strategy
Dialogue: 0,0:04:07.75,0:04:10.96,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,determines who lives and who dies.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:12.42,0:04:15.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, I use the word strategy,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:16.08,0:04:19.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but of course plant and fungi,\Nthey don't have brains.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:19.58,0:04:21.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They're making these exchanges
Dialogue: 0,0:04:21.08,0:04:24.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the absence of anything\Nthat we would consider as thought.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:26.50,0:04:30.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But, as scientists,\Nwe use behavioral terms
Dialogue: 0,0:04:30.88,0:04:34.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,such as strategy
Dialogue: 0,0:04:34.17,0:04:38.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to describe behaviors\Nto certain conditions,
Dialogue: 0,0:04:38.29,0:04:40.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,actions and reactions
Dialogue: 0,0:04:40.42,0:04:45.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that are actually programmed\Ninto the DNA of the organism.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:46.46,0:04:49.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I started studying\Nthese trade strategies
Dialogue: 0,0:04:49.25,0:04:51.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when I was 19 years old
Dialogue: 0,0:04:51.83,0:04:55.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I was living in\Nthe tropical rainforests of Panama.
Dialogue: 0,0:04:55.38,0:05:01.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, everybody at the time was interested\Nin this incredible diversity aboveground.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:01.54,0:05:04.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And it was hyperdiversity.\NThese are tropical rainforests.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:04.83,0:05:08.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But I was interested\Nin the complexity belowground.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:08.50,0:05:11.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We knew that the networks existed,\Nand we knew they were important,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:11.92,0:05:14.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I'm going to say it again,\Nby important I mean important,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:14.88,0:05:17.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so the basis of all plant nutrition
Dialogue: 0,0:05:17.58,0:05:20.79,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for all the diversity\Nthat you do see aboveground.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:22.08,0:05:26.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But at the time, we didn't know\Nhow these networks worked.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:26.62,0:05:28.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We didn't know how they functioned.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:28.83,0:05:33.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Why did only certain plants\Ninteract with certain fungi?
Dialogue: 0,0:05:33.92,0:05:36.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So fast-forward to when\NI started my own group,
Dialogue: 0,0:05:36.62,0:05:39.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we really began to play\Nwith this trade market.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:39.79,0:05:41.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You see, we would manipulate conditions.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:41.88,0:05:45.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We would create a good trading partner\Nby growing a plant in the sun
Dialogue: 0,0:05:45.92,0:05:48.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and a poor trading partner\Nby growing it in the shade.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:48.96,0:05:52.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We would then connect these\Nwith a fungal network.
Dialogue: 0,0:05:52.25,0:05:55.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we found that the fungi\Nwere consistently good
Dialogue: 0,0:05:55.96,0:06:00.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,at discriminating among\Ngood and bad trading partners.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:00.12,0:06:05.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They would allocate more resources\Nto the host plant giving them more carbon.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:06.04,0:06:08.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, we would run\Nthe reciprocal experiments
Dialogue: 0,0:06:08.83,0:06:12.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where we would inoculate a host plant\Nwith good and bad fungi,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:12.67,0:06:16.83,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and they were also good at discriminating\Nbetween these trade partners.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:17.75,0:06:24.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what you have there is the perfect\Nconditions for a market to emerge.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:24.12,0:06:26.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a simple market,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:26.04,0:06:28.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but it's a market nonetheless,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:28.25,0:06:32.33,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,where the better trading partner\Nis consistently favored.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:33.71,0:06:35.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But is it a fair market?
Dialogue: 0,0:06:35.21,0:06:38.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now this is where you need\Nto understand that, like humans,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:38.96,0:06:43.17,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,plants and fungi\Nare incredibly opportunistic.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:44.25,0:06:49.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's evidence that the fungus,\Nonce it penetrates into the plant cell,
Dialogue: 0,0:06:49.29,0:06:54.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it can actually hijack the plant's\Nown nutrient uptake system.
Dialogue: 0,0:06:54.42,0:06:57.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It does this by suppressing\Nthe plant's own ability
Dialogue: 0,0:06:57.50,0:07:00.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to take up nutrients from the soil.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:00.62,0:07:05.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this creates a dependency\Nof the plant on the fungus.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:05.25,0:07:08.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It's a false addiction, of sorts,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:08.21,0:07:10.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whereby the plant has to feed the fungus
Dialogue: 0,0:07:10.92,0:07:15.25,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,just to get access to the resources\Nright around its own root.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:16.33,0:07:21.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's also evidence that the fungi are\Ngood at inflating the price of nutrients.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:21.96,0:07:26.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They do this by extracting\Nthe nutrients from the soil,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:26.17,0:07:29.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but then rather than\Ntrading them with the host,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:29.29,0:07:31.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they hoard them in their network,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:31.54,0:07:37.04,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so this makes them unavailable\Nto the plant and other competing fungi.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:37.79,0:07:39.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So basic economics,
Dialogue: 0,0:07:39.33,0:07:43.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,as resource availability goes down,\Nthe value goes up.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:43.50,0:07:48.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The plant is forced to pay more\Nfor the same amount of resources.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:48.46,0:07:51.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But it's not all in favor of the fungus.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:51.71,0:07:54.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Plants can be extremely cunning as well.
Dialogue: 0,0:07:55.00,0:07:56.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There are some orchids --
Dialogue: 0,0:07:56.33,0:07:59.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and I always think orchids somehow\Nseem like the most devious
Dialogue: 0,0:07:59.29,0:08:01.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the plant species in the world --
Dialogue: 0,0:08:01.21,0:08:03.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and there are some orchids
Dialogue: 0,0:08:03.58,0:08:07.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,that just tap directly into the network
Dialogue: 0,0:08:07.42,0:08:09.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and steal all their carbon.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:09.83,0:08:14.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So these orchids, they don't even make\Ngreen leaves to photosynthesize.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:14.29,0:08:15.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,They're just white.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:15.67,0:08:17.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So rather than photosynthesizing,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:17.83,0:08:19.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,tap into the network,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:19.29,0:08:20.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,steal the carbon
Dialogue: 0,0:08:20.75,0:08:22.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and give nothing in return.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:23.58,0:08:26.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now I think it's fair to say\Nthat these types of parasites
Dialogue: 0,0:08:26.38,0:08:28.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,also flourish in our human markets.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:28.96,0:08:32.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So as we began to decode these strategies,
Dialogue: 0,0:08:32.92,0:08:34.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we learned some lessons.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:34.79,0:08:40.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And the first one was that\Nthere's no altruism in this system.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:40.12,0:08:42.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,There's no trade favors.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:42.04,0:08:45.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We don't see strong evidence
Dialogue: 0,0:08:45.71,0:08:50.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of the fungus helping\Ndying or struggling plants
Dialogue: 0,0:08:50.50,0:08:56.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,unless it directly benefits\Nthe fungus itself.
Dialogue: 0,0:08:58.33,0:09:01.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now I'm not saying\Nif this is good or bad.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:01.46,0:09:05.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Unlike humans, a fungus, of course,\Ncannot judge its own morality.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:06.00,0:09:07.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And as a biologist,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:07.29,0:09:14.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I'm not advocating for these types\Nof ruthless neoliberal market dynamics
Dialogue: 0,0:09:14.08,0:09:15.67,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,enacted by the fungi.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:18.00,0:09:19.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the trade system,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:21.25,0:09:23.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it provides us with a benchmark
Dialogue: 0,0:09:24.83,0:09:28.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to study what an economy looks like
Dialogue: 0,0:09:28.21,0:09:31.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when it's been shaped by natural selection
Dialogue: 0,0:09:31.04,0:09:34.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,for hundreds of millions of years
Dialogue: 0,0:09:34.71,0:09:37.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in the absence of morality,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:37.38,0:09:39.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when strategies are just based
Dialogue: 0,0:09:39.96,0:09:44.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,on the gathering and processing\Nof information,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:44.83,0:09:47.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,uncontaminated by cognition:
Dialogue: 0,0:09:47.29,0:09:49.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,no jealousy, no spite,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:49.83,0:09:51.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but no hope, no joy.
Dialogue: 0,0:09:52.58,0:09:54.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we've made progress
Dialogue: 0,0:09:55.00,0:09:59.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in decoding the most basic\Ntrade principles at this point,
Dialogue: 0,0:09:59.58,0:10:02.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but as scientists we always\Nwant to take it one step further,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:02.75,0:10:07.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and we're interested in more complex\Neconomic dilemmas.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:08.42,0:10:12.50,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And specifically we're interested\Nin the effects of inequality.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:13.50,0:10:19.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So inequality has really become\Na defining feature
Dialogue: 0,0:10:19.21,0:10:21.54,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,of today's economic landscape.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:22.33,0:10:24.81,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But the challenges of inequality
Dialogue: 0,0:10:24.83,0:10:27.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,are not unique to the human world.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:27.50,0:10:31.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,I think as humans we tend to think\Nthat everything's unique to us,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:31.29,0:10:33.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but organisms in nature
Dialogue: 0,0:10:33.96,0:10:39.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,must face relentless variation\Nin their access to resources.
Dialogue: 0,0:10:39.25,0:10:42.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How does a fungus\Nthat can again be meters long
Dialogue: 0,0:10:42.54,0:10:47.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,change its trade strategy\Nwhen it's exposed simultaneously
Dialogue: 0,0:10:47.46,0:10:50.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to a rich patch and a poor patch?
Dialogue: 0,0:10:50.42,0:10:51.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And, more generally,
Dialogue: 0,0:10:51.71,0:10:54.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how do organisms in nature\Nuse trade to their advantage
Dialogue: 0,0:10:55.00,0:10:57.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,when they're faced with uncertainty
Dialogue: 0,0:10:57.75,0:11:00.27,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in terms of their access to resources?
Dialogue: 0,0:11:00.29,0:11:02.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Here's where I have\Nto let you in on a secret:
Dialogue: 0,0:11:02.50,0:11:07.39,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,studying trade underground\Nis incredibly difficult.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:07.42,0:11:13.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,You can't see where or when\Nimportant trade deals take place.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:13.46,0:11:17.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So our group helped pioneer\Na method, a technology,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:17.46,0:11:22.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,whereby we could tag nutrients\Nwith nanoparticles,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:22.12,0:11:26.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,fluorescing nanoparticles\Ncalled quantum dots.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:26.08,0:11:28.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What the quantum dots allow us to do
Dialogue: 0,0:11:28.50,0:11:31.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,is actually light up the nutrients
Dialogue: 0,0:11:31.38,0:11:34.52,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so we can visually track their movements
Dialogue: 0,0:11:34.54,0:11:36.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,across the fungal network
Dialogue: 0,0:11:36.96,0:11:39.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and into the host root.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:39.12,0:11:42.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this allows us finally\Nto see the unseen,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:42.79,0:11:48.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so we can study how fungi bargain\Nat a small scale with their plant hosts.
Dialogue: 0,0:11:48.12,0:11:49.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So to study inequality,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:49.79,0:11:51.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,we exposed a fungal network
Dialogue: 0,0:11:51.96,0:11:55.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to these varying concentrations\Nof fluorescing phosphorus,
Dialogue: 0,0:11:55.88,0:11:59.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,mimicking patches\Nof abundance and scarcity
Dialogue: 0,0:11:59.58,0:12:01.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,across this artificial landscape.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:02.46,0:12:05.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We then carefully quantified fungal trade.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:07.17,0:12:08.75,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And we found two things.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:09.67,0:12:11.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The first thing we found
Dialogue: 0,0:12:11.38,0:12:16.12,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,was that inequality encouraged\Nthe fungus to trade more.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:17.33,0:12:22.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So I can use the word "encouraged"\Nor "stimulated" or "forced,"
Dialogue: 0,0:12:22.08,0:12:25.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,but the bottom line is\Nthat compared to control conditions,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:25.38,0:12:29.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,inequality was associated\Nwith higher levels of trade.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:31.29,0:12:33.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is important,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:33.17,0:12:38.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because it suggests that evolving\Na trade partnership in nature
Dialogue: 0,0:12:38.33,0:12:42.88,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,can help organisms cope with\Nthe uncertainty of accessing resources.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:43.83,0:12:49.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Second, we found that,\Nexposed to inequality,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:50.79,0:12:55.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the fungus would move resources\Nfrom the rich patch of the network,
Dialogue: 0,0:12:55.75,0:12:59.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,actively transport them\Nto the poor side of the network.
Dialogue: 0,0:12:59.92,0:13:01.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now, of course, we could see this
Dialogue: 0,0:13:01.58,0:13:04.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,because the patches\Nwere fluorescing in different colors.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:04.50,0:13:09.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So at first, this result\Nwas incredibly puzzling.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:10.04,0:13:13.89,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Was it to help\Nthe poor side of the network?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:13.92,0:13:19.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,No. We found that the fungus gained more\Nby first moving the resources
Dialogue: 0,0:13:19.79,0:13:22.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to where demand was higher.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:22.38,0:13:28.73,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Simply by changing where\Nacross the network the fungus was trading,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:28.75,0:13:32.08,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,it could manipulate\Nthe value of those resources.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:33.38,0:13:39.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now this stimulated us to really\Ndig deeper into how information is shared.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:39.62,0:13:42.31,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It suggests a high level\Nof sophistication,
Dialogue: 0,0:13:42.33,0:13:45.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,or at least a medium level\Nof sophistication
Dialogue: 0,0:13:45.50,0:13:48.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,in an organism with no cognition.
Dialogue: 0,0:13:48.62,0:13:54.02,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How is it that a fungus can sense\Nmarket conditions across its network
Dialogue: 0,0:13:54.04,0:13:58.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and then make calculations\Nof where and when to trade?
Dialogue: 0,0:13:58.08,0:14:02.64,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we wanted to look about information\Nand how it's shared across this network,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:02.67,0:14:05.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,how the fungus integrates cues.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:07.21,0:14:12.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So to do that, what you need to do is\Ndive deep in and get a higher resolution
Dialogue: 0,0:14:12.62,0:14:14.38,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,into the network itself.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:15.38,0:14:19.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We began to study complex flows\Ninside the hyphal network.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:19.79,0:14:23.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So what you're looking at right now\Nis a living fungal network
Dialogue: 0,0:14:24.00,0:14:28.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,with the cellular contents\Nmoving across it.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:28.12,0:14:30.06,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is happening in real time,
Dialogue: 0,0:14:30.08,0:14:32.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,so you can see the time stamp up there.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:32.46,0:14:35.14,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So this is happening right now.\NThis video isn't sped up.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:35.17,0:14:37.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,This is what is happening\Nunder our feet right now.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:37.62,0:14:40.93,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,And there's a couple of things\Nthat I want you to notice.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:40.96,0:14:45.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,It speeds up, it slows down,\Nit switches directions.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:45.58,0:14:48.35,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,So we're working now with biophysicists
Dialogue: 0,0:14:48.38,0:14:51.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to try to dissect this complexity.
Dialogue: 0,0:14:51.79,0:14:55.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,How is the fungus using\Nthese complex flow patterns
Dialogue: 0,0:14:55.79,0:14:58.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to share and process information
Dialogue: 0,0:14:58.46,0:15:00.62,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,and make these trade decisions?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:01.88,0:15:07.29,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Are fungi better at making\Ntrade calculations than us?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:08.25,0:15:12.23,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Now here's where we can potentially\Nborrow models from nature.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:12.25,0:15:15.56,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,We're increasingly reliant\Non computer algorithms
Dialogue: 0,0:15:15.58,0:15:20.18,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,to make us profitable trades\Nin split-second time scales.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:20.21,0:15:23.77,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,But computer algorithms and fungi,
Dialogue: 0,0:15:23.79,0:15:27.58,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,they both operate in similar,\Nuncognitive ways.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:28.88,0:15:32.10,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The fungi just happens to be\Na living machine.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:32.12,0:15:35.43,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,What would happen\Nif we compare and compete
Dialogue: 0,0:15:35.46,0:15:38.60,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,the trading strategies of these two?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:38.62,0:15:39.98,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Who would win?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:40.00,0:15:43.48,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,The tiny capitalist that's been around
Dialogue: 0,0:15:43.50,0:15:48.85,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,since before and\Nthe fall of the dinosaurs?
Dialogue: 0,0:15:48.88,0:15:50.71,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,My money is on the fungus.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:51.42,0:15:52.68,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,Thank you.
Dialogue: 0,0:15:52.71,0:15:56.00,Default,,0000,0000,0000,,(Applause)